Table 5.

Education effects on propensity for any visit to a GP—logit coefficient estimates from the first part of the hurdle model, pooled cross-country sample (N =4098)^†

Country	Education	Results for models differentiated by means of controlling for need in 6 health domains
		Reported health category			Latent health index from ordered probit			Latent health index from HOPIT model
		Coefficient	SE‡	Joint significance	Coefficient	SE	Joint significance	Coefficient	SE	Joint significance
Restricted model with homogeneous education effects (1)
	Lower secondary	0.004	0.132	0.049	0.027	0.139	0.103	0.091	0.135	0.319
	Upper secondary	0.015	0.121		0.100	0.143		0.201	0.140
	Tertiary	−0.287§	0.129		−0.186	0.128		−0.044	0.132
Unrestricted model with country-specific education effects (2)
Belgium	Lower secondary	−0.718§§	0.436	0.401	−0.754	0.525	0.783	−0.627	0.550	0.647
	Upper secondary	−0.337	0.454		−0.404	0.484		−0.234	0.495
	Tertiary	−0.508	0.450		−0.437	0.498		−0.221	0.530
France	Lower secondary	−0.480	0.448	0.076	−0.289	0.455	0.076	−0.114	0.447	0.620
	Upper secondary	−0.214	0.315		−0.137	0.350		0.060	0.365
	Tertiary	−0.774§§	0.308		−0.663§§	0.350		−0.466	0.407
Italy	Lower secondary	−0.120	0.340	0.599	−0.087	0.374	0.237	0.033	0.394	0.488
	Upper secondary or tertiary	0.261	0.332		0.494	0.438		0.583	0.510
Germany	Upper secondary	0.085	0.431	0.201	0.174	0.500	0.842	0.313	0.506	0.622
	Tertiary	−0.485	0.464		−0.315	0.539		−0.109	0.578
Greece	Lower secondary	0.617§§	0.339	0.017	0.503	0.427	0.002	0.722	0.623	0.464
	Upper secondary	−0.413§§	0.213		−0.317	0.233		−0.263	0.244
	Tertiary	−0.215	0.250		−0.063	0.299		0.012	0.346
Netherlands	Lower secondary	0.435	0.348	0.245	0.436	0.396	0.940	0.700	0.432	0.049
	Upper secondary	0.726§§	0.389		0.838§	0.401		1.293§	0.477
	Tertiary	0.221	0.376		0.265	0.335		1.018§	0.482
Spain	Lower secondary	0.536	0.413	0.018	0.624	0.483	0.735	0.581	0.489	0.094
	Upper secondary or tertiary	−0.691§	0.336		−0.631	0.400		−0.567	0.407
Sweden	Lower secondary	0.020	0.334	0.257	−0.025	0.407	0.218	0.077	0.412	0.871
	Upper secondary	0.579§§	0.318		0.410	0.408		0.298	0.418
	Tertiary	0.314	0.307		0.149	0.313		0.240	0.330
Likelihood ratio tests, LR, of restricted (1) against unrestricted (2) model
		LR	Degrees of freedom	p-value	LR	Degrees of freedom	p-value	LR	Degrees of freedom	p-value
		36.91	20	0.0120	33.85	20	0.0272	36.33	20	0.0140

^†All models include controls for health in six domains, diagnosed chronic conditions, age, gender and country. The reference education category is primary school or less except for Germany. The first panel contains estimated education coefficients from a restricted model with no education–country interactions. The second panel contains country-specific education effects from a model with interactions. The ordered probit and HOPIT models which were used to predict the health indices include the same age, gender, education, country and education–country interactions, plus the health indicators listed in Table 4.

^‡Bootstrap standard error.

^§Significance relative to the reference education category, which is the lowest, at 5%.

^§§Significance relative to the reference education category, which is the lowest, at 10%.