Table 3.

Molecular abnormalities in SCC

Marker	Class	Function	Abnormality	NMSC	HNSCC	ESCC	NSCLC
TP53	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene regulating cell-cycle progression and cell survival	GE, GM	•	•	•	•
pRB	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene regulating cell-cycle progression and apoptosis	GE		•[237]
p16	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene regulating senescence and cell-cycle progression	GM, M		•	•
PTEN	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene controlling cell proliferation and apoptosis	GE		•[237]
MKI67 (Ki-67)	CCR	Proto-oncogene regulating cell proliferation, increased from normal to pre-cancer	GE	•	•	•	•
CCND1	CCR	Proto-oncogene regulating cell-cycle progression	GE	•	•	•
p63	CCR	A member of the p53 family of transcription factors	GE	•	•	•	•
p27	CCR	G1 arrest	GE			•[238]
CD95	CCR	Death ligands	GE	•[239]
FHIT	CCR	Negative regulation of progression through cell cycle	GE			•[240]
Bcl-x	CCR	regulate programmed cell death	GE			•[235]
Bcl-2	CCR	regulate programmed cell death	GE			•[103]
Bax	CCR	regulate programmed cell death	GE			•[236]
EGFR	ST	Transmembrane TK acting as a central transducer of multiple signaling pathways	GE, GM	•	•	•	•
VEGF	ST	Transmembrane TK that promotes the proliferation, migration, and survival of endothelial cells during tumor growth	GE		•	•
HER2	ST	Cell membrane surface-bound receptor tyrosine kinase leading to cell growth and differentiation	GE		•[241]	•[234]
Annexin I	ST	Cell surface receptor linked signal transduction	GE			•[242]
RRas2	ST	Small GTPase mediated signal transduction	GE, GM			•[243]
Smad6/7	ST	TGF beta receptor signaling pathway	GE			•[229]
NKX2-1 (TTF-1)	ST	Regulates gene trancription	GE, GM				•
BRAF	ST	Protein kinase is involved in sending signals in cells and in cell growth	GE, GM				•
c-MET	ST	Membrane receptor that is essential for embryonic development and wound healing	GE, GM				•
PEDF	ST	Serine protease inhibitor	GE				•[244]
PIK3CA	ST	Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase	GE, GM				•
LKB1	ST	Protein kinase regulates cell polarity and functions as a tumor suppressor	GE, GM				•
RASSF1A	ST	Encord protein mediated signal transduction	GE, M				•
CD24	ST	Encord protein mediated signal transduction	GE				•[101]
CD44v6	CA	Transmembrane glycoproteins that maintain tissue integrity by mediating contact between cells or between cells and the extracellular matrix	GE		•[230]
CDH1	CA	Ca 2+ -dependent cell-cell adhesion molecule, induce and maintain intercellular connections	GE, M	•		•
Trop2	CA	Cell adhesion, signal transduction	GE		•[231]
EpCAM	CA	Cell adhesion, signal transduction	GE, GM		•[232]
ALCAM	CA	Cell adhesion, signal transduction	GE			•[245]
MMPs	EMD	A family of zinc-dependent proteolytic enzymes that degrade the basement membrane and other components of the extracellular matrix	GE	•	•	•
COX-2	PM	Prostaglandin metabllism	GE	•	•	•	•
SOX-2	TF	Transcription factor	GE		•	•	•
AP-1	TF	Transcript factor	GE	•[246]
PPARb/d	TF	Transcript factor	GE	•[247]
CK-14	CK	Epidermis development	GE			•[248]
CK-4	CK	Cytoskeleton organization and biogenesis	GE			•[248]

CCR = cell-cycle regulation; ST = signal transduction; CA = cell adhesion; EMD = extracellular matrix degradation; PM = protein metabolism; TF = transcript factor; CK = cytokeratin; PK = protein kinase; GE = gene expression; GM = gene mutation; M = methylation