Fig. 2.

Protective actions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) agonists for the improvement of diabetic nephropathy. In diabetic patients, symptoms such as hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, endothelial dysfunction, lipotoxicity, and high blood pressure all can contribute to renal complications of diabetes systemically or locally via increased inflammation, activation of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), enhanced oxidative stress, increased apoptosis and vasculopathy, which can be attenuated by the activation of PPARα. TGF, transforming growth factor; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.