| • Laboratory markers which comprise the determination of genetic and epigenetic markers, transmitters, hormones, cytokines, neuropeptides, enzymes, and others as single measures; this approach is also suited to reflecting the investigation of complex biological systems in its approximated entirety which is frequently described as a genome, proteome, and metabolome6
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| • Electrophysiological markers which regularly comprise, eg, electroencephalography (EEG) measures7 (and particularly sleep EEG and evoked potentials)8, magnetic encephalography, electrocardiography, and in particular heart rate variability analyses9, facial electromyography analysis for emotion processing,10 skin conductance, and others |
| • Brain imaging techniques like cranial computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional MRI (fMRI), magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)11,12
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| • Behavioral approaches such as cue exposure and challenge tests which can be used to induce or monitor especially emotional processes in anxiety and depression.13,14
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