Table III. Panic anxiety-inducing agents. Adapted from ref 57: Nutt D, Lawson C Panic attacks: a neurochemical overview of models and mechanisms. Br J Psychiatry ; 1992;160:165-178. Copyright © Royal College of Psychiatrists 1992.
| Panicogen | Heart rate stimulation | Dyspnea | Respiratory stimulation | HPA stimulation | NE stimulation |
| Cognitive | + | + | + | - | - |
| Lactate | + | + | + | - | - |
| Bicarbonate | - | + | + | - | - |
| CO2 | ? | + | + | - | - |
| Isoproterenol | + | + | + | ? | ? |
| Caffeine | + | - | + | + | - |
| Cholecystokinin-4 | + | + | (+) | + | - |
| Pentagastrin | + | + | (+) | + | ? |
| Yohimbine | + | - | - | + | + |
| mCCP | + | - | - | + | - |
| Fenfluramine | + | - | - | + | - |
| β-Carboline | + | - | - | + | + |
| Flumazenil | ? | - | - | - | ? |