TABLE 1.
Distribution of Individual Risk Factors by Neighborhood Disadvantage Level: Pittsburgh Youth Study, Pittsburgh, PA, 1988
| Risk Factors at Baseline | No. | All Neighborhoods (n = 503), No. (%) | Disadvantaged With PH (n = 67), % | Disadvantaged Without PH (n = 114), % | Average (n = 255), % | Advantaged (n = 67), % | P |
| Family factors | |||||||
| Family SES Hollingshead (low) | 495 | 128 (25.86) | 58.73 | 31.86 | 20.24 | 5.97 | < .001 |
| Female SES Hollingshead (low) | 481 | 113 (23.49) | 56.45 | 26.13 | 18.03 | 7.81 | < .001 |
| Male SES Hollingshead (low) | 251 | 50 (19.92) | 50.00 | 19.57 | 21.62 | 8.51 | .02 |
| Poorly educated mother | 486 | 96 (19.75) | 33.85 | 21.82 | 18.47 | 6.45 | .001 |
| Unemployed mother | 483 | 168 (34.78) | 50.00 | 38.53 | 30.65 | 29.03 | .019 |
| Unemployed father | 266 | 80 (30.08) | 47.06 | 39.62 | 28.76 | 16.28 | .034 |
| Caretaker supervision | 500 | 131 (26.20) | 34.85 | 32.74 | 22.83 | 19.40 | .043 |
| Teenage mother of participant | 476 | 120 (25.21) | 39.39 | 27.62 | 24.70 | 6.90 | .001 |
| Biological father behavior problems | 429 | 73 (17.02) | 25.00 | 22.11 | 13.64 | 14.52 | .105 |
| Young female caretaker | 483 | 99 (20.50) | 30.77 | 22.73 | 20.16 | 6.67 | .001 |
| Young male caretaker | 267 | 72 (26.97) | 52.94 | 26.92 | 29.03 | 9.30 | .001 |
| Mother's alcohol consumption | 433 | 57 (13.16) | 22.95 | 11.70 | 12.61 | 7.14 | .068 |
| Biological mother/father substance use | 447 | 130 (29.08) | 36.84 | 32.98 | 28.94 | 16.39 | .068 |
| Poor housing | 463 | 120 (25.92) | 35.48 | 31.73 | 23.95 | 13.56 | .019 |
| Small house | 493 | 107 (21.70) | 46.88 | 3.36 | 15.02 | 7.81 | < .001 |
| Physical punishment | 480 | 213 (44.38) | 59.09 | 54.21 | 39.26 | 32.31 | .001 |
| Child factors | |||||||
| Race (Black) | 503 | 290 (57.65) | 100.00 | 88.60 | 43.14 | 17.91 | < .001 |
| ADHD diagnosis | 503 | 47 (9.34) | 4.48 | 8.77 | 11.76 | 5.97 | .205 |
| Nonphysical aggression | 503 | 145 (28.83) | 31.34 | 34.21 | 28.24 | 19.40 | .19 |
| Religious observance | 502 | 139 (27.69) | 28.79 | 20.18 | 31.37 | 25.37 | .16 |
| Depression score | 502 | 116 (23.11) | 15.15 | 30.70 | 21.57 | 23.88 | .093 |
| Covert behavior | 498 | 130 (26.10) | 26.15 | 32.74 | 26.77 | 12.12 | .025 |
| Lack of guilt | 497 | 128 (25.75) | 28.13 | 32.74 | 26.38 | 9.09 | .005 |
| OPD DSMIIIR diagnosis | 495 | 51 (10.30) | 3.08 | 15.93 | 10.63 | 6.35 | .034 |
| Risk score | 503 | 254 (50.50) | 56.72 | 60.53 | 46.67 | 41.79 | .027 |
| School factors | |||||||
| Held back in school | 503 | 199 (39.56) | 55.22 | 49.12 | 35.69 | 22.39 | .001 |
| Low academic achievement | 503 | 127 (25.25) | 23.88 | 30.70 | 26.27 | 13.43 | .073 |
| Peer factors | |||||||
| Bad friends | 501 | 132 (26.35) | 27.27 | 32.74 | 25.88 | 16.42 | .119 |
| Peer delinquency | 476 | 121 (25.42) | 31.25 | 33.65 | 22.22 | 18.46 | .049 |
Note. ADHD = attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; OPD DSMIIIR = Operationalized Psychomatic Diagnostics Diagnostic and Statistical Manual III; PH = public housing SES = socioeconomic status.