Table 3.
Association between digoxin use and prostate cancer by disease aggressiveness, 47,884 men in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, 1986–2006.
| Regular digoxin use at baseline* | Current digoxin use during follow-up* | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prostate cancer cases (N)** |
RR (95% CI) | Prostate cancer cases (N)** |
RR (95% CI) | |||
| Multivariable- adjusted*** |
Additionally adjusted for use of other medications¶ |
Multivariable- adjusted*** |
Additionally adjusted for use of other medications¶ |
|||
| Organ-confined | ||||||
| No | 3,465 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 3,402 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Yes | 44 | 0.70 (0.52 to 0.94) |
0.70 (0.52 to 0.95) |
107 | 0.72 (0.59 to 0.87) |
0.73 (0.59 to 0.88) |
| Advanced or lethal | ||||||
| No | 838 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 819 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Yes | 16 | 0.59 (0.36 to 0.97) |
0.60 (0.36 to 0.99) |
35 | 0.75 (0.54 to 1.06) |
0.76 (0.53 to 1.07) |
| Lethal | ||||||
| No | 617 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 601 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Yes | 15 | 0.67 (0.40 to 1.12) |
0.68 (0.40 to 1.14) |
31 | 0.83 (0.58 to 1.20) |
0.82 (0.56 to 1.19) |
| Fatal | ||||||
| No | 513 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 499 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Yes | 15 | 0.78 (0.46 to 1.30) |
0.79 (0.47 to 1.34) |
29 | 0.92 (0.63 to 1.35) |
0.93 (0.63 to 1.38) |
| Lower grade (Gleason sum <7) | ||||||
| No | 2,178 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 2,142 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Yes | 27 | 0.69 (0.47 to 1.01) |
0.68 (0.46 to 1.01) |
63 | 0.69 (0.54 to 0.89) |
0.68 (0.53 to 0.88) |
| Higher grade (Gleason sum ≥7) | ||||||
| No | 1,871 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 1,834 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Yes | 22 | 0.65 (0.42 to 0.99) |
0.66 (0.43 to 1.02) |
59 | 0.73 (0.56 to 0.94) |
0.76 (0.59 to 1.00) |
| Very high grade (Gleason sum ≥8) | ||||||
| No | 493 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) | 481 | 1.00 (ref) | 1.00 (ref) |
| Yes | 8 | 0.71 (0.35 to 1.44) |
0.74 (0.36 to 1.51) |
20 | 0.79 (0.50 to 1.24) |
0.81 (0.51 to 1.29) |
Reference: no use at baseline for regular use at baseline; not current use for current use during follow-up.
See Table 2 for numbers of person-years.
Adjusted for calendar year, age, race, current body mass index (BMI; kg/m2), body mass index at age 21, height (inches), first degree family history of prostate cancer, pack-years smoked in the past 10 years, vigorous physical activity (metabolic equivalent [MET]-hours/week), diabetes mellitus, daily intake of energy (kcal/day), energy-adjusted α-linolenic acid (g/day), energy-adjusted calcium (mg/day), bacon (servings/day), fish (servings/day), tomato sauce (servings/day), and use of a vitamin E supplement.
Adjusted for use of cholesterol-lowering drugs, aspirin, ibuprofen, furosemide diuretics, other diuretics, beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, other antihypertensives, and antiarrhythmics.