Table 1.
Summary of Studies Examining the CaR-FA-X Model of Mechanisms Underlying Overgeneral Autobiographical Memory (OGM)
| Authors (year) | Participants (N) | Measure of CaR-FA-X Mechanism(s) | Assessment of OGMa | Overall Findings Consistent with the CaR-FA-X Model |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Capture and Rumination | ||||
| Bessell et al. (2008) | Adults with acquired brain injury (N = 58) | Rumination vs. distraction induction | AMT | Y: consistent with rumination mechanism |
| Crane, Barnhofer, Visser et al. (2007) | Adults with past MDD (N =34) | Analytical/abstract vs. concrete/experiential self-focus induction | AMT | Y: consistent with rumination mechanism |
| Debeer et al. (2009) | Undergraduate students (N = 314) | RRS measure of rumination, including brooding and reflection subscales | Standard and Minimal Instructions AMTs | Y: consistent with rumination mechanism |
| Raes, Hermans, Williams, Geypen et al. (2006) | Secondary school students (N = 112) | Extent to which participants unscrambled sentences in ruminative vs. non-ruminative ways; RSS measure of rumination | Overgeneral vs. specific retrieval style induction | Findings suggest rumination OGM relationship is bidirectional |
| Raes et al. (2008) | Undergraduate students (N = 195) | Analytical/abstract vs. concrete/experiential self-focus induction | SCEPT and forced-choice SCEPT | Y: consistent with rumination mechanism |
| Sutherland & Bryant (2007) | High (n = 26 and 48 for Studies 1 and 2) and low (n = 28 and 50 for Studies 1 and 2) dysphoric undergraduate students | Rumination vs. distraction induction (Study 1); rumination induction on positive or negative content (Study 2 | AMT | Y: consistent with rumination mechanism |
| Functional Avoidance | ||||
| Aglan et al. (2010) | Adult women with (n = 46) and without (n = 57) a history of MDD | History of CSA | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Boelen et al. (2010) | Bereaved adults (N = 109) | Extent to which specific memories were related vs. unrelated to the loss | Standard and trait AMTs | N: inconsistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Crane & Duggan (2009) | Adults with recurrent suicidal behavior (N = 49) | History of CSA | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Geraerts et al. (2010) | Undergraduate students (N = 87) | Thought suppression vs. control conditions for negative vs. neutral memories | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Golden et al. (2007) | Bereaved adults with (n = 16) and without (n = 13) CG | Extent to which memories were related to the self, the deceased, or a living significant other | AMT, BMT for the deceased, and BMT for a living significant other | N: inconsistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Hauer et al. (2008) | Adults with (n = 70) and without (n = 63) CSA | History of CSA | Standard AMT and direct retrieval AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Hermans, de Decker et al. (2008) | Undergraduate students (N = 39) | Failure of an exam (unexpected aversive experience | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Johnson et al. (2005) | Adolescents in a longitudinal study on family violence (N = 134) | Exposure to family violence and sexual abuse between 6–12 and 12–18 years | Asked to retrieve as many specific childhood memories to cues within 3min; coded for specificity | N: inconsistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Lemogne et al. (2009) | Healthy adults (N = 38) | Avoidance symptoms on the IES-R | Interview assessing several aspects of episodic memory (e.g., specificity) for positive and negative events | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Maccallum & Bryant (2010) | Bereaved adults with (n = 24) and without (n = 21) CG | Extent to which memories were related or unrelated to the loss | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| McNally et al. (2006) | Adults with (n = 139) and without (n = 25) CSA | Continuous memory, recovered memory, repressed memory, or no memory of CSA | AMT for memories from before and after age 13 | Mixed support for functional avoidance mechanism |
| Moradi et al. (2008) | Adult refugees (N = 37; Study 1) | Avoidance symptoms on the PDS | AMT | N: inconsistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Raes, Hermans, Williams, & Eelen (2006) | Low- (n = 45) and high- (n = 45) specific undergraduate students (Study 1); low-specific female undergraduate students (n = 48; Study 2) | Low- and high-specific tendencies; frustrating vs. neutral puzzle task (aversive experience vs. control) | AMT | Mixed support for functional avoidance mechanism |
| Raymaekers, Smeets, Peters, & Merckelbach (2010) | Adults with (n = 86) and without (n = 26) CSA | Continuous memory, recovered memory, or no memory of CSA | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Schönfeld & Ehlers (2006) | Adult trauma survivors with (n = 29) and without (n = 26) PTSD | Measures of cognitive strategies linked to avoidance | Standard and pictorial AMTs | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Schönfeld et al. (2007) | Adult assault survivors with (n = 14) and without (n = 28) PTSD | Measures of cognitive strategies linked to avoidance | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Sinclair et al. (2007) | Adults with a history of deliberate self-harm (n = 68) | Reported history of CPA and CSA | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Valentino et al. (2009) | Maltreated (n = 77) and non-maltreated (n = 115) children | History of abuse (CSA or CPA) or neglect from Department of Human Services reports | AMT | Y: consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Impaired Executive Control | ||||
| Birch & Davidson (2007) | Dysphoric (n = 17) and non-dysphoric (n = 17) older adults | WMS III working memory index subtests | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Dalgleish et al. (2007) | 7 studies, one with adults with eating disorders, and others with adult community volunteersb | Various measures of executive control; AMT manipulations that vary the role of executive control in OGM associated with depression | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Heeren et al. (2009) | Healthy adults who completed a mindfulness training (n = 18) and matched controls (n = 18) | Measures of cognitive and motor inhibition, and cognitive and behavioral flexibility | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Neshat-Doost et al. (2008) | Adult community volunteers (N = 50) | Color Stroop task vs. control tasks prior to the AMT | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Piolino et al. (2010) | Younger (n = 50) and older (n = 50) healthy adults | Measures of updating, inhibition, shifting, and feature binding in working memory | VAF task; TEMPau task | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Raes et al. (2010) | Primary school children (N = 135) | Inhibitory Control subscale of the EATQ-R | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Ros et al. (2010) | Younger (n = 50) and older (n = 46) healthy adults | Measures of working memory | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Rutherford (2010) | Undergraduate students (N = 80) | Digit recall task during the AMT vs. control | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Yanes et al. (2008) | Undergraduate students (N = 134) | Assessed memory for task instructions | AMT | Y: consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Multiple Mechanisms | ||||
| Barnhofer et al. (2007) | Adults with (n = 16) and without (n = 19) past MDD | Extent to which cues on the AMT were self-relevant; dual vs. single task conditions (AMT with and without random generation task) | AMT | Interaction between capture phenomenon and executive control mechanism |
| Dalgleish et al. (2007) | Adult community volunteers with depressed mood (N = 32; Study 8) | Performance on AMT-R can reflect functional avoidance or impaired executive control | AMT-R | Consistent with executive control mechanism |
| Dalgleish et al. (2008) | Adult community volunteers with a trauma history (N = 36) | Performance on AMT-R can reflect functional avoidance or impaired executive control | AMT-R | Consistent with functional avoidance mechanism |
| Raes, Hermans, Williams, Brunfaut et al. (2006) | Adults with current MDD(N = 28) | RRS measure of rumination; history of trauma on the TEC | AMT | Interaction between rumination and functional avoidance mech. |
| Raes, Hermans, Williams Demyttenaere et al. (2006) | Adults with current MDD (N = 26) | RSS measure of rumination; measure of working memory (letter-number sequencing) | AMT | Main effects of rumination and executive control mechanisms |
| Sumner, Griffith, & Mineka (2011) | Undergraduate students (N = 109) | RRS measure of rumination; extent to which cues on the AMT were self-relevant; measures of verbal fluency and inhibition | AMT | Main effects of capture and rumination, and executive control mechanisms |
a
OGM reflects either fewer specific memories or more overgeneral memories.
b
See Multiple Mechanisms section for Study 8. AMT = Autobiographical Memory Test; MDD = major depressive disorder; RRS = Ruminative Responses Scale; RSS = Rumination on Sadness Scale; SCEPT = Sentence Completion for Events from the Past Test; CSA = childhood sexual abuse; CG = complicated grief; BMT = Biographical Memory Test; IES-R = Impact of Events Scale – Revised; PDS = Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale; PTSD = posttraumatic stress disorder; CPA = childhood physical abuse; WMS = Wechsler Memory Scale; VAF task = Verbal Autobiographical Fluency task; TEMPau task = Test Episodique de Mémoire du Passé autobiographique; EATQ-R = Revised Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire; AMT-R = Reversed Autobiographical Memory Test; TEC = Traumatic Experiences Checklist.