Table 1.
Time-averaged vertical and horizontal forces acting on wings and body at down- (Fv, down, Fh, down) and up-stroke (Fv, up, Fh, up), in a complete wing-beat cycle (Fv, Fh), vertical force to mass ratio of hawkmoth (14.7 mN), muscle-mass-specific aerodynamic and induced powers of a single flexible or rigid wing (Pa′, Pind′), and aerodynamic efficiencies (η).
| vertical force (mN) |
horizontal force (mN) |
vertical force-mass ratio, Fv/M | aerodynamic power, Pa′ (W kg−1) | induced power, Pind′ (W kg−1) | aerodynamic efficiency, η (%) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fv, down | Fv, up | Fv | Fh, down | Fh, up | Fh | |||||
| flexible | 23.8 | 13.1 | 18.4 | 12.9 | −24.4 | −5.7 | 1.25 | 95.3 | 41.4 | 43.4 |
| rigid (base) | 20.8 | 9.9 | 15.4 | 13.5 | −22.2 | −4.4 | 1.05 | 83.3 | 33.3 | 40.0 |
| rigid (tip) | 26.3 | 12.9 | 19.2 | 14.8 | −26.0 | −5.7 | 1.31 | 108.9 | 43.3 | 39.8 |