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(a) The first step in de novo GSH biosynthesis is rate limiting. Glutamine and cysteine are linked by the homodimeric enzyme glutamine-cysteine ligase, (b) GSS catalyzes the second step in GSH biosynthesis, linking glycine and γ-glutamyl cysteine to form GSH. (c) Oxidized GSH can be converted to free GSH by GSR, utilizing NADPH as a cofactor.
