Table 1.

Effects of native and transgenic AMPs in different organisms

AMPs	Organism	Target molecule	Outcome
Native AMPs	Bacteria	Membrane phospholipids/LPS	Prevention of vital microbial homeostasis because of pore formation in membranes64
		DnaK; receptor/docking/transporter molecule; GroEL	Inhibition of natural ATPase activity; Inhibition of chaperon-assisted protein folding68–70
		Ribosome	Protein synthesis inhibition69
	Fungi	Membrane glycosyl ceramide	Membrane permeabilization779,80
		Redox signaling cascade	Induction of ROS, membrane damage, organelle breakdown and cell death24,82
		MAP kinase signaling cascades	Regulation of fungal genes important for overcoming plant defense83
		Chitin in cell wall	Interference with chitin synthesis85,86
	Plants	Diverse molecules	Modification of host gene expression88,89
			Induction of cell death in other plants90
			Association with epigenetic somaclonal variation events91
			Conferring zinc tolerance92
	Mammals	Nucleus	Cell cycle impairment in rat retinal neuroblasts81
		L-type Ca2+ channel	Blockade of mammalian L-type Ca2+ channel84
		Diverse molecules	Playing as chemokines93,94 and/or induction of chemokine production95
			Inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine production induced by LPS96
			Wound healing promotion97
			Inhibitory activities toward tumor cells and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase98
			Modulation of adaptive immune responses4,5
Transgenic AMPs in plants	Microbes	Diverse molecules	Interference with microbial fitness and virulence establishment2,99
	Plants	Diverse molecules	Primed status of transgenic plants due to more activated ISR and SAR and higher redox potential2,99,100
			Alteration of processes of synthesis, folding, and stabilization of proteins which enter to the secretory pathway101
			Alteration of translational machinery101
			Alteration of components of vesicle-associated transport machinery101
			Improved protection against oxidative stress24,82,99–101