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Surface currents in the South Atlantic Ocean. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current and Subtropical Gyre have been important dispersal mechanisms, furnishing Africa with penguins from other austral landmasses (e.g. South America). Pliocene fossil penguin localities are indicated with open stars, and closed circles show the breeding range of S. demersus (after the study by Crawford et al. [37]). Dashed lines indicate ocean fronts. Oceanographic features are from Stramma & England [38].
