Table 2.
Participant characteristics by sex and blood cadmium level.
| Men | Women | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blood cadmium tertile | Blood cadmium tertile | |||||||||||||
| Characteristic | Total | < 1.29 μg/L | 1.29–1.88 | > 1.88 μg/L | p-Value for trenda | Total | < 1.29 μg/L | 1.29–1.88 | > 1.88 μg/L | p-Value for trenda | ||||
| n (%) | 955 (100) | 293 (30.3) | 335 (34.9) | 327 (34.8) | 954 (100) | 341 (36.4) | 308 (31.9) | 305 (31.7) | ||||||
| Age (years)b | 42.2 (40.4, 44.0) | 43.1 (41.2, 45.0) | 43.1 (41.1, 45.1) | 0.74 | 42.0 (40.2, 43.7) | 43.5 (41.5, 45.6) | 46.9 (45.2, 48.7) | < 0.01 | ||||||
| Postmenopause (%)c | — | — | — | — | 332 | 31.2 | 31.9 | 36.9 | 0.06 | |||||
| Education (%) | ||||||||||||||
| < High school | 235 | 25.0 | 35.7 | 39.3 | 0.11 | 384 | 30.7 | 29.1 | 40.2 | < 0.01 | ||||
| High school | 409 | 28.6 | 36.7 | 34.7 | 0.62 | 374 | 39.6 | 34.5 | 25.9 | < 0.01 | ||||
| > High school | 311 | 35.8 | 32.0 | 32.2 | 0.09 | 196 | 40.0 | 31.5 | 28.5 | 0.51 | ||||
| Region (%) | ||||||||||||||
| Metropolitan | 356 | 36.1 | 30.9 | 33.0 | < 0.05 | 413 | 37.1 | 32.6 | 30.3 | 0.72 | ||||
| Urban | 391 | 27.2 | 38.9 | 33.9 | 0.25 | 332 | 37.5 | 30.1 | 32.4 | 0.80 | ||||
| Rural | 208 | 23.5 | 35.8 | 40.7 | 0.27 | 209 | 32.9 | 32.7 | 34.4 | 0.61 | ||||
| BMI [ ≥ 25 kg/m2 (%)] | 381 | 30.7 | 36.9 | 32.4 | 0.60 | 298 | 31.3 | 36.0 | 32.7 | 0.12 | ||||
| Smoking status (%) | ||||||||||||||
| Never | 138 | 28.0 | 36.2 | 35.8 | 0.82 | 861 | 37.4 | 31.9 | 30.7 | 0.24 | ||||
| Former | 343 | 35.7 | 34.3 | 30.0 | < 0.05 | 42 | 34.9 | 28.6 | 36.5 | 0.81 | ||||
| Current | 474 | 27.4 | 34.9 | 37.7 | 0.12 | 51 | 23.1 | 33.6 | 43.3 | 0.11 | ||||
| Alcohol intake (%) | ||||||||||||||
| Never | 50 | 22.2 | 32.2 | 45.6 | 0.26 | 177 | 29.5 | 36.8 | 33.7 | 0.12 | ||||
| Former | 86 | 23.3 | 30.6 | 46.1 | 0.17 | 112 | 35.6 | 32.9 | 31.5 | 0.97 | ||||
| Current | 819 | 31.4 | 35.4 | 33.2 | < 0.05 | 665 | 38.2 | 30.5 | 31.3 | 0.25 | ||||
| Blood lead (μg/dL)d | 955 | 3.06 (2.89, 3.24) | 3.00 (2.83, 3.18) | 2.88 (2.64, 3.14) | 0.51 | 954 | 2.35 (2.19, 2.53) | 2.36 (2.18, 2.55) | 2.22 (2.04, 2.41) | 0.43 | ||||
| Diabetes mellitus (%) | 87 | 40.6 | 31.0 | 28.4 | 0.17 | 54 | 34.3 | 22.6 | 43.1 | 0.17 | ||||
| Hypertension (%) | 273 | 22.6 | 33.8 | 43.6 | < 0.01 | 193 | 26.9 | 30.2 | 42.9 | < 0.01 | ||||
| eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2)e | 955 | 80.1 (78.4, 81.8) | 81.4 (80.0, 82.8) | 80.3 (78.4, 82.2) | 0.41 | 954 | 75.3 (73.5, 77.1) | 73.1 (71.7, 74.5) | 72.0 (70.5, 73.5) | < 0.01 | ||||
| Reduced eGFR (%) | 262 | 33.4 | 34.1 | 32.5 | 0.56 | 259 | 28.7 | 32.1 | 39.2 | < 0.01 | ||||
| —, data not available. All values are weighted. Tertiles are based on the weighted distribution in the whole study sample. ap-Value for trend estimated based on the Wald test. bMean (95% CI). cThere were 88 women with missing menopause status (n = 866). dGeometric mean (95% CI). eeGFR < 74.7 mL/min per 1.73 m2 for men and eGFR < 65.4 mL/min per 1.73 m2 for women; mean eGFR (95% CI). | ||||||||||||||