Table 2.

Some major categories of potential electronic-nose applications within various sectors of the healthcare and biomedical industries.

Healthcare sector	Specific application areas	References
Biochemical tests	Biochemical assays	[125]
	Blood compatibility	[126]
	Cellular-signaling detection	[127]
	Clinical chemistry	[128]
Biomedical research	Biosensor development	[129–132]
	Sensory response	[133–138]
Chemical exposures	Contact or inhalation of toxic chemicals	[139,140]
	Biologically-active VOCs, harmful vapors	[141–148]
	Heavy metal exposure	[149]
Clinical biomechanics	Culture and in vitro medical analyses	[116]
Detection	Presence of toxic substances	[150–152]
Environmental hazards	Health hazards in the environment	[153–155]
Equipment mechanics	Operational life of healthcare equipment	[156,157]
Food contaminations	Microbial pathogens or toxins	[158–164]
	Chemical contaminants	[165]
Genetic testing	Presence of genetic anomalies/disorders	[166]
Immunology	Antibody monitoring	[167,168]
Infections	Local and systemic infections	[123,169]
Ingestion of toxins & poisons	Alcohol consumption and abuse	[170]
	Drug use and abuse	[171]
	Potable water contamination Pesticides	[172,173] [174]
Microbial culture	Discrimination of types or cell lines	[175]
	Identification of microbes	[176,177]
	Growth phases	[178–180]
Monitoring	Blood plasma glucose levels	[181–184]
	Hormone levels	[185,186]
	Human tissue activities	[187]
	Progress of dialysis	[188]
Organ dysfunctions	Enterogastric reflux	[189]
	Hearing loss	[190]
	Organ failures or abnormalities	[191]
	Organ transplant success	[192]
Pathology	Cancer detection	[193]
	Clinical disease diagnoses	[194,195]
	Pathogenic microbe detection in tissues	[196,197]
	Specific pathogen identifications	[198]
Pharmacology	Drug purity/contaminations, drug toxicoses	[8]
	Drug-delivery controls, drug effectiveness	[199]
Physical therapy	Prosthetic applications	[200]
Physiological conditions	Electrophysiological measurements	[201]
	Hydration, ketosis, oxidative stress	[202,203]
	Physiological disorders	[204]
Respiratory conditions	Oxygen-sensing measurements	[205]
Remote health care	Telemedicine	[206]
Waste disposal	Medical waste analysis	[207]
Wound & graft healing	Bacterial colonization, secondary infection	[208]
	Progress of healing	[209]
	Skin graft success	[210]