Table 2.
First author | Year | Sample characteristics |
Length of follow-up |
Measure of frailty | Measure of depression |
Main findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frailty as determinant, depression as outcome | ||||||
Kennedy | 1991 | USA | 2 years | Number of medical conditions | CES-D | Poorer health status and use of formal support services were associated with greater persistence of depressive symptoms. |
n = 1577 | ||||||
82% women | ADL index | |||||
Age range: | ||||||
65+ years | ||||||
Racial | ||||||
composition | ||||||
unknown | Use of formal support services | |||||
Ormel | 2002 | Netherlands | 2 years | GARS | HADS | Disability had a stronger relationship with worsening depressive symptoms than depression had on worsening disability. |
n = 753 | ||||||
72% women | ||||||
Mean age | ||||||
(F): 73 years | ||||||
(SD: 7.6) | ||||||
Mean age | ||||||
(M): 71 years | ||||||
(SD: 8.7) | ||||||
Racial | ||||||
composition | ||||||
unknown | ||||||
Taylor | 2004 | USA | 10 years | ADL and IADL indices | CES-D | Trajectories of increasing disability were significantly associated with trajectories of increasing depressive symptoms. |
n = 3876 | ||||||
65% women | ||||||
Mean age: | ||||||
73.2 years | ||||||
(SD: 6.4) | ||||||
46% White; | ||||||
54% Black | ||||||
Yang | 2005 | USA | 3 years | ADL and IADL indices | CES-D | Onset and persistence of disability were significantly associated with increases in depressive symptoms. |
n = 1300 | ||||||
63% women | Nagi Physical Performance scale | |||||
Mean age: | ||||||
71.1 years | ||||||
(SD: 5.1) | ||||||
46% White; | ||||||
54% Black | ||||||
Modified Rosow-Breslau | ||||||
Health Scale for the Aged | ||||||
Schieman | 2007 | USA | 2 years | ADL index | Hopkins | Functional limitations predicted increases in depressive symptoms at follow-up. |
n = 898 | Symptom | |||||
50% women | Checklist | |||||
Age: 65+ years | ||||||
52% White; | ||||||
48% Black | ||||||
Gayman | 2008 | USA | 3 years | ADL and IADL indices | CES-D | Functional limitations predicted increases in depressive symptoms; depression only weakly predictive of increases in functional limitations. |
n = 1495 | ||||||
54% women | ||||||
Mean age: | Physical mobility | |||||
57 years | ||||||
(SD: 17) | ||||||
24% White; | ||||||
24% Cuban; | ||||||
22% non- Cuban Hispanics; |
||||||
30% Black |
||||||
Chang | 2009 | USA | 3 years | ADL index | GDS | Incident disability significantly predicted depressive symptoms at the time of disability onset. |
n = 671 | ||||||
100% women | ||||||
Age: 65+ years | ||||||
72% White; | Among those without depression, disability was not significantly associated with depressive symptoms 6 months post-disability onset. |
|||||
27% Black | ||||||
Depression as determinant, frailty as outcome | ||||||
Buchner | 1996 | USA | 6months | Gait speed | CES-D | Worsening of depressive symptoms was significantly associated with gait slowing. |
n = 152 | Lower body strength | |||||
Age range: | ||||||
65–85 years | ||||||
55% women | ||||||
94% White | SF-36 | |||||
Strawbridge | 1998 | USA | 29 years | Impairments in physical, nutritive, cognitive, and sensory functioning |
18-item depressive symptom scale |
Depressive symptoms associated with greater likelihood of frailty at follow-up. |
n = 574 | ||||||
Age range: | ||||||
65–102 years | ||||||
57% women | ||||||
82% White | ||||||
Vaillant | 1998 | USA | 55 years | Medical examination | IMDDS | Depression was associated with lower likelihood of experiencing no physical limitations at follow-up. |
n = 237 | ||||||
100% men | ||||||
Mean age: | Physical limitations | |||||
75 years | ||||||
(SD: 2) | ||||||
Racial | ||||||
composition | ||||||
unknown | ||||||
Hebert | 1999 | Canada | 3 years | Functional Autonomy Measurement System |
GDS | Depression was not significantly predictive of functional decline at follow-up. |
n = 504 | ||||||
60% women | ||||||
Mean age: | ||||||
79.9 years | ||||||
(SD: 3.9) | ||||||
Racial | ||||||
composition | ||||||
unknown | ||||||
Rantanen | 2000 | USA | 3 years | Hand grip strength | CES-D | Depressive symptoms were associated with a steeper decline in grip strength over time, particularly among low-weight men. |
n = 2275 | ||||||
100% men | Body weight | |||||
Age range: | ||||||
71–92 years | ||||||
100% Asian | ||||||
Sarkisian | 2000 | USA | 4 years | ADL index | GDS | Depressive symptoms were significantly associated with greater functional decline at follow-up. |
n = 6632 | ||||||
100% women | ||||||
Mean age: | ||||||
73 years | ||||||
(SD: 4.9) | ||||||
Racial | ||||||
composition | ||||||
unknown | ||||||
Mehta | 2002 | USA | 2 years | ADL index | CES-D | Depressive symptoms were significantly predictive of incident functional impairment but not worsening functional impairment. |
n = 5697 | ||||||
64% women | ||||||
Mean age: | ||||||
77 years | ||||||
(SD: 5.5) | ||||||
86% White; | ||||||
10% Black | ||||||
Ostir | 2004 | USA | 7 years | Modified Cardiovascular Health Study Frailty Index |
CES-D | Positive affect was negatively associated with incidence of frailty. |
n = 1558 | ||||||
61% women | ||||||
Mean age: | ||||||
71.9 years | ||||||
(SD: 5.7) | ||||||
100% Mexican | ||||||
American | ||||||
Woods | 2005 | USA | 3 years | CES-D | ||
n = 40657 | Modified Cardiovascular Health Study Frailty Index |
Depressive symptoms were significantly associated with incident frailty. |
||||
100% women | ||||||
Age range: | ||||||
65–79 years | ||||||
86% White; | ||||||
6.5% Black | ||||||
Avlund | 2006 | Finland & Denmark |
5 years | Lower Limb T-Scale | CES-D | Depressive symptoms were significantly associated with feelings of tiredness performing daily activities at baseline but did not predict onset of tiredness at follow-up. |
n = 546 | ||||||
55% women | Muscle strength | |||||
Age range: | Forced expiratory volume | |||||
75–80 years | ||||||
100% White | ||||||
Avlund | 2006 | Finland and Denmark |
5 years | PADL-H Scale | CES-D | Depressive symptoms were associated with onset of disability, independent from feelings of tiredness. |
n = 419 | ||||||
61% women | ||||||
Mean age: | ||||||
75 years | ||||||
100% White | ||||||
Han | 2006 | USA | 2 years | ADL and IADL scales | CES-D | Declines in depressive symptoms were associated with better self-rated health at follow-up among both disabled and non-disabled older people. |
n = 6771 | ||||||
Age range: | ||||||
65+ years | ||||||
Gender and racial | Self-rated health | |||||
composition | ||||||
unknown | ||||||
Atkinson | 2007 | USA | 3 years | 3MS | CES-D | Depressive symptoms mediated the relationship between cognitive functioning and gait speed change. |
n = 2349 | ||||||
52% women | CLOX1 | |||||
Mean age: | EXIT15 | |||||
75.6 years (SD: 2.9) |
||||||
63% White; | Gait speed | |||||
37% Black | ||||||
Xue | 2007 | USA | 3 years | Cardiovascular Health Study Frailty Index |
GDS | Depressive symptoms were not significantly associated with incident frailty but were associated with increased frailty-free mortality. |
n = 599 | ||||||
100% women | ||||||
Age: 65+ years | ||||||
71% non-Black; | ||||||
29% Black | ||||||
Barry | 2009 | USA | 9 years | ADL index | CES-D | Depressive symptoms predicted degree of mild and severe disability at follow-up. |
n = 754 | ||||||
65% women | ||||||
Age: 70+ years | ||||||
>90% White | ||||||
Park-Lee | 2009 | USA | 4 years | Modified Cardiovascular Health Study Frailty Index |
CES-D [Positive affect subscale] |
Positive affect was associated with lower incidence of frailty, independent from depressive symptoms. |
n = 954 | ||||||
100% women | ||||||
Mean age: | ||||||
81.2 years | ||||||
(SD: 3.7) | ||||||
87% White |
ADLs, activities of daily living (e.g., hygiene, dressing, eating, toileting, basicmobility); IADLs, instrumental activities of daily living (e.g., keeping appointments, using the telephone, traveling, preparing meals, shopping, housework, managing medications, managing finances); GARS, Groningen Activity Restriction Scale; OARS, Older Americans Resources and Services; SAFE, Survey of Activities and Fear of Falling in the Elderly; FICSIT, Frailty and Injuries Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques; 3MS, Modified Mini-Mental Status Examination; CLOX1, Executive Clock-Drawing Task; EXIT15, Executive Interview; SF-36, Short-Form Health Survey; PADL-H Scale, Physical Activities of Daily Living—Help Scale; CES-D, Centers for Epidemiologic Studies—Depression Scale; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; SHORT-CARE, Comprehensive Assessment and Referral Evaluation—Short Form; DPHS, Depression Homogenous Subscale; DPDS, Depression Diagnostic Subscale; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; IMDDS, Indicators of Major Depressive Disorder Scale.