Table 1.
Main characteristics of the 48 gynodioecious species and occurrence of female advantage
| Fitness traits |
|||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Species | Family | SI/SC | Poll | Life cycle | Genetics | FA? | Females are better | Females are not better | No differences | References | |
| Beta vulgaris | Amaranthaceae | SI | W | P | NC | NO | NFL, SS, NS, G | Boutin-Stadler (1987); Dufay et al. (2009)* | |||
| Gingidia flabellata | Apiaceae | P | FA | FS | NFL | Webb (1981) | |||||
| Cirsium chikushiense | Asteraceae | SI | E | P | NO | NFL | Kawabuko (1994) | ||||
| Echium vulgare | Boraginaceae | SC | E | Bisa | NC | FA | FS, SS, NS | NFL, SM, G | Klinkhamer et al. (1991*, 1994) | ||
| Eritrichum aretioides | Boraginaceae | pSC | E | P | FA | SM, G | NFL, SS | Puterbaugh et al. (1997) | |||
| Phacelia linearis | Boraginaceae | SC | E | A | N | FA | NS | SM, SS, G, Surv | Eckhart (1992a, b) | ||
| Raphanus sativus | Brassicaceae | SI | E | A | NC | NO | NFL, NS, G | SM | Miyake et al. (2009) | ||
| Opuntia quimilo | Cactaceae | SC | E | P | FA | FS | NFL,SS | Diaz and Cocucci, 2003 | |||
| Lobelia siphilitica | Campanulaceae | SC | E | P | NC | FA | NFL, NS | SS, NFL | Caruso and Yakobowski (2008); Caruso and Case (2007*); Caruso et al. (2003) | ||
| Dianthus sylvestris | Caryophyllaceae | SC | E | P | FA | NFL, SM | SS, G | Collin et al. (2002) | |||
| Moehringia lateriflora | Caryophyllaceae | pSC | E | P | VAR | FS, SS | FS, SS | Sugawara (1993) | |||
| Schiedea adamantis | Caryophyllaceae | SC | W/E | P | N | FA | FS, SM, SS | NFL, G, Surv-Ad, | Sakai et al. (1997) | ||
| Schiedea salicaria | Caryophyllaceae | SC | W/E | P | N | VAR | G, SM, SS | NFL, FS, SM, SS, G | Weller and Sakai (2005) | ||
| Silene acaulis | Caryophyllaceae | SC | E | P | NC | FA | FS | NFL | Shykoff (1992*); Hermanutz and Innes (1994) | ||
| Silene italica | Caryophyllaceae | SC | E | P | NC | FA | FS, SM | NFL | NFL | Maurice (1999); Lafuma and Maurice (2006) | |
| Silene nutans | Caryophyllaceae | SC | E | P | NC | NO | NFL | Dufay et al. (2010) | |||
| Silene stockenii | Caryophyllaceae | SC | E | A | NC | NO | FS, SS | Talavera et al. (1996) | |||
| Silene vulgaris | Caryophyllaceae | SC | E | P | NC | FA | FS, SM, SS | SS, G | Dulberger and Horovitz (1984); Olson et al. (2006); Andersson et al. (2008*) | ||
| Clusia nemorosa | Clusiaceae | SC | E | P | FA | FS | Lopes and Machado (1998) | ||||
| Wurmbea biglandulosa | Colchicaceae | SC | E | P | VAR | NFL, SS, NS, G | SM, NS | SS, Surv | Ramsey and Vaughton (2002); Vaughton and Ramsey (2004) | ||
| Cucurbita foetidissima | Cucurbitaceae | SC | E | P | N | FA | NFL,NS | SS | FS,SM | Kohn (1989) | |
| Erythroxylum havanense | Erythroxylaceae | SI | E | P | FA | FS, Surv-Ad | Avila-Sakar and Dominguez (2000); Rosas et al. (2005) | ||||
| Geranium maculatum | Geraniaceae | SC | E | P | FA | NFL, FS, SM, SS, NS, G, Surv | NFL, FS, G, Surv | Agren and Willson (1991); Chang (2006) | |||
| Geranium sylvaticum | Geraniaceae | SC | E | P | VAR | FS, SS, NS | NFL,SM,G,Surv | Asikainen and Mutikainen (2003, 2005); Ramula and Mutikainen (2003) | |||
| Nemophila menziesii | Hydrophyllaceae | SC | E | A | NC | FA | NS | NFL | Barr (2004) | ||
| Iris douglasiana | Iridaceae | SC | E | P | Amb. | SS | SS | Uno (1982) | |||
| Glechoma longituba | Lamiaceae | SC | E | P | VAR | SM, SS | SS | Zhang et al. (2008) | |||
| Lycopus maackianus | Lamiaceae | . | E | P | FA | NS | Hong and Moon (2003) | ||||
| Thymus vulgaris | Lamiaceae | SC | E | P | NC | FA | NS, G | Assouad et al. (1978) | |||
| Limnanthes douglasii | Limnanthaceae | SC | E | A | NC | FA | NFL | Kesseli and Jain (1984, 1985) | |||
| Nototriche compacta | Malvaceae | SC | E | P | NO | SS | FS, SS | Garcia-Franco and Arroyo (1995) | |||
| Sidalcea hendersonii | Malvaceae | SC | E | P | N | VAR | SS | FS, SS | Marshall and Ganders (2001) | ||
| Sidalcea malviflora | Malvaceae | SC | E | P | NC | FA | SS | Graff (1999) | |||
| Chionographis japonica | Melianthaceae | SC | E | P | FA | NS | NFL | Maki (1993) | |||
| Satyrium ciliatum | Orchidaceae | SC | E | P | FA | FS | Huang et al. (2009) | ||||
| Hebe subalpina | Plantaginaceae | SC | E | P | FA | FS | NFL | Delph (1993) | |||
| Plantago coronopus | Plantaginaceae | SC | W | A | NC | Amb. | NFL, SM | SS | SS, Surv | Koelewijn (1996, 1998); Koelewijn and VanDamme (1996*) | |
| Plantago lanceolata | Plantaginaceae | SI | W | P | NC | FA | NFL, NS, SM, Surv-Ad | SM, SS, G, Surv | Poot et al. (1996); Vandamme and Vandelden, (1982*, 1984) | ||
| Plantago maritima | Plantaginaceae | Mainly SI | W | P | NC | VAR | NFL, SM, NS | FS, SS, NS | Nilsson and Agren (2006) | ||
| Chionochloa bromoides | Poaceae | SC | W | NO | NFL, SS | Connor (1990) | |||||
| Cortaderia richardii | Poaceae | SC | W | P | N | FA | SM, G | Connor (1965) | |||
| Fragaria virginiana | Rosaceae | SC | E | P | N | FA | FS, NFL, NS | NFL | Ashman (1999, 2003); Case and Ashman (2007) | ||
| Prunus mahaleb | Rosaceae | pSC | E | P | FA | NFL, SM, NF | FS | G | Jordano (1993) | ||
| Bequaertiodendron magalismontanum | Sapotaceae | E | P | FA | FS | Steyn and Robbertse (1990) | |||||
| Saxifraga granulata | Saxifragaceae | SC | E | P | NC | Amb. | SM, G | SS | NFL | Stevens and Richards (1985*); Stevens (1988) | |
| Daphne laureola | Thymelaeceae | SC | E | P | NO | NFL | FS | SM, FS | Alonso and Herrera (2001); Alonso (2005); Alonso et al. (2007) | ||
| Gnidia wikstroemiana | Thymelaeceae | SC | E | P | FA | NFL | FS | Beaumont et al. (2006); Smith (2009*) | |||
| Kallstroemia grandiflora | Zygophyllaceae | SC | E | A | Amb. | FS | SS | NS, SM | Cuevas et al. (2008) | ||
For each species is listed: whether it is self-compatible (SC), partially self-compatible (pSC) or self-incompatible (SI); its pollination mode (Poll), if it is either wind pollinated (W) or entomophilous (E); whether it is perennial (P), bisannual (Bisa) or annual (A) and, where known, the determination of sex (NC, nuclear–cytoplasmic; N, nuclear). This table reports the traits for which studies have found a female advantage, a female disavadvantage or no difference between females and hermaphrodites. When the same trait is found in several categories for a given species, it means that either different studies found contradictory results or that results vary according to the population or year. Abbreviation for the traits are the followings: NFL, number of flowers; FS, fruit set; SS, seed set; NS, number of seeds per plant; NF, number of fruits per plant; SM, seed mass or size; G, germination; Surv, survival of offspring; Surv-Ad, adult survival. Only results obtained on open-pollinated flowers are reported here. The column ‘FA’ summarizes all reported results, by indicating whether a female advantage has been statistically demonstrated by the original studies for at least one trait (FA), ambiguous cases (Amb.), species for which female advantage varies with populations (VAR) and species for which no female advantage has been found (NO). References tagged with an asterisk are those that were used for reporting data on sex ratios but not on fitness traits.