Table 4.

Representative Human Studies Examining the Effects of Phytoestrogens on Vascular Inflammation

Phytoestrogen - Clinical Trial	Subjects	Study Design	Outcome	Ref
Phytoestrogens- - Cross-sectional study	151 Middle age elderly males and 91 Post-MW	Secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, pinoresinol, lariciresinol intake was evaluated. Soluble ICAM-1 (biomarker of inflammation involving damage to the endothelium and platelets), insulin, CRP, glucose, TC, HDL-C and triglycerides measured in fasting blood samples. FMD (only in 56 M and 55 F)	Plasma concentrations of soluble ICAM-1 significantly decreased in the whole group. Marked decrease in soluble ICAM-1 accompanied with relevant improvement of FMD only in the matairesinol group.	[239]
Isoflavones - RCT	60 Post-MW	Isoflavone or placebo tablets for 6 month	Significant improvement of endothelium dependent vasodilation in the isoflavone treatment group. Plasma ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and E-selectin decreased in the isoflavone group compared to placebo.	[240]
Genistein - Cross-sectional	30 Males	Either a placebo or high-genistein treatment. Blood samples were collected before and within 5 min, and after 30 min of 80% peak O2 consumption exercise. Measurements were taken before and after 4-week supplementation.	Isoflavones decreased homocysteine levels. Phytoestrogens were shown to have antioxidant effects, but a limited ability to diminish an abrupt surge of oxidative stress due to acute exercise	[241]
Isoflavones - Crossover RCT	117 Healthy Post-MW	Isoflavone-enriched or placebo cereals consumed for 8 wk, with washout of 8 wk	Lower CRP levels but no effect on other inflammatory markers	[242]
Lignan - RCT	22 Healthy Post-MW	Low-fat muffin, with or without a lignan complex, for 6 weeks, separated by a 6-week washout period.	No differences between the lignans and placebo periods in IL-6, TNFα, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and MCP-1 levels. Lower CRP in the lignans-added period.	[243]