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In vitro studies (n = 3 for each bar) of the transdermal and noninvasive extraction of urea by electroporation, reverse iontophoresis, and a combination of these methods. For the electroporation setting, they all have the same pulse width of 1 msec and number of pulses per second of 10. The legend shows the reverse iontophoresis setting, which is a symmetrical biphasic dc with a current density of 0.3 mA/cm2.
Notes: Results are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation. **P < 0.001.
