TABLE 3.
HRs (and 95% CIs) for incident type 2 diabetes in women by dietary intake of anthocyanin-rich foods1
| Intake of anthocyanin-rich foods |
||||||
| <1 time/mo | 1–3 times/mo | 1 time/wk | 2–4 times/wk | ≥5 times/wk | P-trend | |
| Strawberries | ||||||
| NHS | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 1746/372,692 | 2842/643,347 | 1808/400,048 | 404/92,670 | 78/18,840 | |
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.90, 1.01) | 0.94 (0.88, 1.00) | 0.84 (0.76, 0.94) | 0.83 (0.66, 1.04) | 0.001 |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.92, 1.03) | 0.97 (0.91, 1.04) | 0.88 (0.79, 0.98) | 0.89 (0.71, 1.11) | 0.02 |
| NHS II | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 567/213,115 | 1210/556,146 | 841/406,709 | 395/184,982 | 71/31,859 | |
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.81 (0.73, 0.90) | 0.80 (0.72, 0.89) | 0.75 (0.66, 0.86) | 0.81 (0.63, 1.04) | 0.008 |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.87 (0.78, 0.96) | 0.89 (0.79, 0.99) | 0.83 (0.73, 0.95) | 0.88 (0.68, 1.13) | 0.13 |
| HPFS | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 924/227,757 | 1155/333,650 | 402/114,418 | 147/43,417 | 21/5935 | |
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.87 (0.80, 0.95) | 0.88 (0.79, 0.99) | 0.81 (0.68, 0.97) | 0.88 (0.57, 1.36) | 0.03 |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.83, 0.99) | 0.93 (0.83, 1.05) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.05) | 0.90 (0.58, 1.39) | 0.19 |
| Pooled results4 | ||||||
| Random-effects model | 1.00 | 0.92 (0.86, 0.99) | 0.94 (0.90, 0.99) | 0.86 (0.80, 0.93) | 0.89 (0.76, 1.04) | 0.003 |
| P-heterogeneity | — | 0.12 | 0.40 | 0.80 | 0.99 | 0.95 |
| Blueberries5 | ||||||
| NHS | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 4545/954,221 | 1575/383,866 | 641/157,315 | 117/32,196 | ||
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.85, 0.95) | 0.86 (0.79, 0.93) | 0.78 (0.65, 0.94) | <0.001 | |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.88, 0.99) | 0.91 (0.84, 0.99) | 0.83 (0.69, 1.00) | 0.002 | |
| NHS II | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 1942/760,223 | 749/406,799 | 294/165,249 | 99/60,541 | ||
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.77 (0.70, 0.83) | 0.77 (0.68, 0.87) | 0.65 (0.53, 0.79) | <0.001 | |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.76, 0.90) | 0.85 (0.75, 0.96) | 0.68 (0.56, 0.84) | <0.001 | |
| HPFS | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 1698/436,603 | 748/222,924 | 147/45,768 | 56/19,883 | ||
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.88 (0.81, 0.96) | 0.87 (0.74, 1.03) | 0.74 (0.57, 0.96) | 0.002 | |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.92 (0.84, 1.00) | 0.94 (0.79, 1.12) | 0.79 (0.61, 1.04) | 0.03 | |
| Pooled results4 | ||||||
| Random-effects model | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.83, 0.96) | 0.90 (0.84, 0.96) | 0.77 (0.68, 0.87) | <0.001 | |
| P-heterogeneity | — | 0.07 | 0.53 | 0.38 | 0.26 | |
| Apples and pears | ||||||
| NHS | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 887/183,788 | 1739/374,745 | 1609/349,603 | 1740/405,921 | 903/213,541 | |
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.86, 1.01) | 0.90 (0.83, 0.97) | 0.82 (0.75, 0.88) | 0.79 (0.72, 0.87) | <0.001 |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.89, 1.05) | 0.97 (0.89, 1.05) | 0.91 (0.83, 0.99) | 0.88 (0.80, 0.97) | 0.002 |
| NHS II | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 330/101,058 | 784/315,976 | 675/297,235 | 879/454,119 | 416/224,424 | |
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.71 (0.63, 0.81) | 0.68 (0.60, 0.78) | 0.60 (0.53, 0.68) | 0.57 (0.49, 0.66) | <0.001 |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.75 (0.66, 0.85) | 0.75 (0.65, 0.86) | 0.68 (0.59, 0.78) | 0.65 (0.56, 0.76) | <0.001 |
| HPFS | ||||||
| Cases/person-years | 292/65,996 | 606/160,617 | 493/131,919 | 779/222,097 | 479/144,548 | |
| Model 12 | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.74, 0.98) | 0.86 (0.74, 0.99) | 0.78 (0.68, 0.89) | 0.73 (0.63, 0.85) | <0.001 |
| Model 23 | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.74, 0.98) | 0.90 (0.78, 1.05) | 0.82 (0.72, 0.95) | 0.79 (0.68, 0.93) | 0.01 |
| Pooled results4 | ||||||
| Random-effects model | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.73, 1.01) | 0.87 (0.75, 1.02) | 0.80 (0.67, 0.95) | 0.77 (0.65, 0.93) | <0.001 |
| P-heterogeneity | — | 0.003 | 0.008 | 0.002 | 0.005 | 0.20 |
HPFS, Health Professionals Follow-Up Study; NHS, Nurses’ Health Study.
Adjusted for age (continuous) and BMI category (in kg/m2; <23, 23.0–24.9, 25.0–26.9, 27.0–28.9, 29.0–30.9, 31.0–32.9, 33.0–34.9, 35.0–36.9, 37.0–38.9, 39.0–40.9, 41.0–42.9, 43.0–44.9, or ≥45.0).
Further adjusted for variables in model 1 plus smoking status [never smoker, past smoker, or current smoker (1–14, 15–24, or ≥25 cigarettes/d)], alcohol intake (0, 0.1–4.9, 5.0–9.9, 10.0–14.9, or ≥15 g/d in women; 0, 0.1–4.9, 5.0–29.9, or ≥30 g/d in men), multivitamin use (yes or no), physical activity (quintiles of hours of metabolic equivalent tasks per week), a family history of diabetes, postmenopausal status and hormone use (NHS and NHS II), oral contraceptive use (NHS II), ethnicity (white, African American, Hispanic, or Asian), total energy (kcal/d), and polyunsaturated:saturated fat ratio and intakes of red meat, fish, whole grains, coffee, high-calorie sodas (including punch), and trans fat (all in quintiles).
Data were pooled by using random-effects model of results from model 2.
Because of the low number of type 2 diabetes cases, the 2 highest categories for blueberry intake were combined to yield more stable estimates.