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A: Graph showing a case where the statistical dependence between 
and 
is (partly) due to a causal interaction from 
to 
. B: Graph showing a case where the statistical dependence between 
and 
is induced solely by the confounding variable 
. C: Graph corresponding to the intervention 
in the causal graph shown in A. D: Graph corresponding to the intervention 
in the causal graph shown in B.
