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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2013 Aug 1.
Published in final edited form as: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2011 Nov 7;36(7):1750–1762. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.11.001

Table 2.

Treatment effects on memory and amygdala norepinephrine levels

Treatmenta Memory effect Amygdala norepinephrine Reference
Footshock (FS) Varies with FS intensity Varies with FS intensity Quirarte et al. 1998
Vagus Stimulation Enhances Increases Hassert et al., 2004
IA training Varies with FS intensity Increasesb McIntyre et al. 2002
Epinephrine Enhancesc Increases Williams et al. 1998
Corticosterone Enhancesc Increases McReynolds et al., 2010
Muscimol Impairs Decreases Hatfield et al. 1999
Picrotoxin Enhances Increases Hatfield et al. 1999
β-endorphin Impairs Decreases Quirarte et al. 1998
Naloxone Enhances Increases Quirarte et al. 1998
a

All treatments given immediately posttraining.

b

Training-induced increase in norepinephrine correlates with retention performance tested 24 hours later.

c

Epinephrine and corticosterone produce inverted U dose-response effects on memory retention. Effects presented here are based on administration of memory-enhancing doses.