Table 3. Abnormalities in biomarkers of immune dysregulation or inflammation in ASD.
| Abnormality | Number of studies |
|---|---|
| Cytokine abnormalities | 30 |
| Autoantibodies to brain tissue | 23 |
| Abnormal brain or CSF biomarkers | 20 |
| Abnormal number of CD4 or CD8 cells | 16 |
| Alterations in MHC | 15 |
| Antibodies to foods | 12 |
| Abnormalities in immunoglobulins | 11 |
| Abnormalities in certain growth factors | 9 |
| Genetic mutations affecting immune function | 7 |
| Maternal antibodies to fetal brain tissue or lymphocytes | 7 |
| Decreased Bcl-2 expression | 6 |
| Alterations in BDNF | 6 |
| Microglial activation | 3 |
| Abnormalities in natural killer cells | 3 |
| Abnormal leptin levels | 2 |
Abbreviations: ASD, autism spectrum disorders; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; MHC, major histocompatibility complex.