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MAPK/ERK signaling and the hallmarks of cancers. The MAPK/ERK pathway mediates several upstream signals from well-known oncogenic growth factors and proinflammatory stimulants. Activation of the MAPK/ERK pathway by growth factors, proinflammatory stimulants and gain-of-function mutations of Ras/Raf promotes phenotypic changes characteristic of cancer cells [9–14].
