Table 1.
Literature review on ROM characteristics in the overhead athlete
| Author | Mean glenohumeral external rotation at 90° abduction dominant shoulder | Mean glenohumeral internal rotation at 90° abduction dominant shoulder | Total rotational motion (TRM) dominant shoulder | Mean glenohumeral external rotation at 90° abduction nondominant shoulder | Mean glenohumeral internal rotation at 90° abduction nondominant shoulder | Total rotational motion (TRM) nondominant shoulder | Conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Borsa et al. [4] | 135.5° ± 9.5° | 59.7° ± 7.0° | 195.2° ± 12.1° | 130.4° ± 10.7° | 68.2° ± 8.6° | 198.6° ± 26.6° | External rotation was found to be significantly increased and internal rotation was found to be significantly decreased in a pitcher’s dominant shoulder |
| Borsa et al. [5] | 134.8° ± 10.2° | 68.6° ± 9.2° | 203.4° ± 9.7° | 125.8° ± 8.7° | 78.3° ± 10.6° | 204.1° ± 9.7° | There is no correlation between glenohumeral translation and passive internal and external rotation in a thrower’s shoulder |
| Chant et al. [9] | 114° ± 9.8° | 57.1° ± 8.7° | 171.1° ± 12.5° | 104.1° ± 7.4° | 73.5° ± 9.6° | 177.6° ± 11.0° | The increased external rotation and decreased internal rotation in baseball player’s dominant shoulder can be explained by both soft tissue changes and increased humeral retroversion |
| Crockett et al. [11] | 128° ± 9.2° | 62° ± 7.4° | 189° ± 12.6° | 119° ± 7.2° | 71° ± 9.3° | 189° ± 12.7° | There is a correlation between increased external rotation and decreased internal rotation in a thrower’s dominant shoulder and humeral retroversion |
| Dwelly et al. [14] | Pre-fall: 96.2° ± 12.7° Pre-spring: 104° ± 17.0° Post-spring: 106.9° ± 19.9° |
Pre-fall: 45.5° ± 11.1° Pre-spring: 47.5° ± 8.5° Post-spring: 45.8° ± 10.0° |
Pre-fall: 141.7° ± 15.0° Pre-spring: 151.4° ± 16.9° Post-spring:152.4° ± 19.9° |
Pre-fall: 92.0° ± 10.0° Pre-spring: 101.7° ± 15.2° Post-spring: 104.4° ± 17.8° |
Pre-fall: 52.7° ± 11.8° Pre-spring: 52.6° ± 10.2° Post-spring: 52.2° ± 11.3° |
Pre-fall: 144.7° ± 14.4° Pre-spring: 145.3° ± 15.0° Post-spring: 156.6° ± 17.3° |
Baseball and Softball players exhibited an increase in external ROM and TROM during the course of a season, but did not exhibit changes in internal rotation |
| Ellenbecker et al. [15] | 103.2° ± 9.1° | 42.2° ± 15.8° | 145.7° ± 18.0° | 94.5° ± 8.1° | 52.4° ± 16.4° | 146.9° ± 17.5° | There was no significant difference in total ROM between extremities in baseball players |
| Freehill et al. [16] | Start of season: 124.8° ± 19.5° End of season: 126.3° ± 21.6° |
Start of season: 70.9° ± 11.8° End of season: 73.6° ± 13.2° |
Start of season: 196.5° ± 22.1° End of season: 199.9° ± 26.0° |
Start of season: 116.3° ± 12.7° End of season: 119.0° ± 16.4° |
Start of season: 76.3° ± 12.4° End of season: 81.4° ± 10.4° |
Start of season: 193.6° ± 19.9° End of season: 200.4° ± 22.0° |
There were no significant changes in shoulder internal and external rotation during the course of a season. Relief pitchers exhibited a greater increase in glenohumeral internal rotation deficit over the season |
| Laudner et al. [19] | Pretest: 118.6° ± 10.9° Posttest: 119.2° ± 11.0° |
Pretest: 43.8° ± 9.5° Posttest: 46.9° ± 9.8° |
Pretest: 162.4° Posttest: 166.1° |
There was a significant increase in glenohumeral internal rotation and posterior shoulder flexibility after performing the sleeper stretch | |||
| Lintner et al. [20] | Stretching group: 142.7° Nonstretching group: 138.9° |
Stretching group: 74.3° Nonstretching group: 55.2° |
Stretching group: 216.98° Nonstretching group: 194.2° |
Participation in an internal rotation stretching program significantly improved glenohumeral internal rotation and TROM | |||
| Myers et al. [24] | Impingement group: 125.8° ± 13.1° Nonimpingement group: 121.1° ± 8.7° |
Impingement group: 42.5 ° ± 12.1° Nonimpingement group: 51.1° ± 14.4° |
Impingement group: 168.3° Nonimpingement group: 172.2° |
Impingement group: 117.5° ± 16.7° Nonimpingement group: 116° ± 10.3° |
Impingement group: 62.2° ± 16.9° Nonimpingement group: 62.2° ± 13.7° |
Impingement group: 179.7° Nonimpingement group: 178.2° |
Throwers with impingement exhibited greater internal rotation deficits and posterior shoulder tightness |
| Osbahr et al. [26] | 126.8° ± 12.0° | 79.3° ± 13.3° | 206.1° | 114.5° ± 9.1° | 91.4° ± 13.6° | 205.9° | Increased external rotation and decreased internal rotation in a thrower’s shoulder is due to both soft tissue changes as well as an increase in humeral retroversion |
| Reagan et al. [27] | 116.3° ± 11.4° | 43.0° ± 7.4° | 159.5° ± 12.4° | 106.6° ± 11.2° | 51.2° ± 7.3° | 157.8° ± 11.5° | An increase in glenohumeral external rotation and a decrease in glenohumeral internal rotation correlates to an increase in humeral retroversion in throwers |
| Thomas et al. [30] | Baseball players with greater than 15° of glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD) exhibit significantly more scapular protraction and significantly less scapular upward rotation than baseball players with less than 15° of GIRD | ||||||
| Wilk et al. [35] | 136.1° ± 11.2° | 47.5° ± 10.6° | 183.7° ± 14.5° | 128.6° ± 11.0° | 59.1° ± 11.0° | 187.7° ± 14.5° | Pitchers with GIRD were twice as likely to get injured |
| Wilk et al. [36] | 132° | 52° | 184° | 127° | 63° | 190° | External rotation was found to be significantly increased and internal rotation was found to be significantly decreased in a pitcher’s dominant shoulder |