| Medications: Narcotics, anticholinergics, phenothiazines, laxative abuse, benzodiazepines, calcium channel blockers, clonidine, vincristine, interleukin, amphetamine overdose, cytotoxic drugs, antiparkinsonian agents |
| Medical: |
| • Cardiopulmonary – Mechanical ventilation, myocardial infarction, pneumonia, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |
| • Infectious – Sepsis, herpes zoster, cytomegalovirus |
| • Metabolic – Hypokalemia, hyponatremia, hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia, diabetes, hypothyroidism |
| • Neurologic – Dementia, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson disease, spinal cord disease |
| • Oncologic – Small cell lung cancer, multiple myeloma, acute myeloid leukemia, disseminated cancer, pelvic irradiation, retroperitoneal invasion of lumbar sympathetic nervous system |
| • Miscellaneous – Organ failure, amyloidosis, physical exertion, idiopathic, alcoholism |
| Surgical: |
| • Inflammation – Appendicitis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, gastritis, abscess |
| • Obstetric – Normal pregnancy, normal delivery, cesarean section, hysterectomy, placenta previa |
| • Organ transplantation – Liver, kidney, heart, lung |
| • Trauma and Orthopedic – Pelvic trauma, pelvic, hip fracture, pelvic, hip surgery, joint arthroplasty, spine surgery, burns |
| • Urologic – Ethanol ablation of renal cancer, nephrolithiasis |
| • Others – Gastrointestinal bleeding, retroperitoneal hematoma, mesenteric thrombosis, craniotomy, aortic aneurysms, thoracotomy |
