Table 1.
Non-genetic risk factors for gallbladder stones
| Age |
| Female gender |
| High-calorie, low-fiber diet |
| High-carbohydrate diet, dietary glycemic load |
| Obesity |
| Physical inactivity |
| Rapid weight loss/surgery for obesity |
| Total gastrectomy with lymph node dissection |
| Spinal cord injury |
| Infections: enterohepatic Helicobacter species, malaria |
| Biliary strictures |
| Drugs: estrogens, calcineurin inhibitors, fibrates, octreotide, ceftriaxone |
| Total parenteral nutrition |
| Duodenal diverticulum |
| Extended ileal resection (black pigment stones) |
| Vitamin B12/folic acid deficient diet (black pigment stones) |
| Pancreatic insufficiency |
| Cholangitis (brown pigment bile duct stones) |
Adapted from Portincasa et al[1] and Grünhage et al[160] with permission.