Table 1.

Aims and approaches/outcomes for developing evolutionary resilience in populations and landscapes against climate change

Aim	Scale where applied	Approach/Outcome	Comments/Limitations
A. Increase population size and genetic variation generally	Population	Increased census size	Needs to be related to effective size, which depends on life history and environmental variability
		Increased effective size	Can be enhanced by population connectedness and breeding systems
		Maintenance/increase in mtDNA/nuclear DNA variation (neutral)	Can be increased by including individuals from different populations (translocation) as well as through population size
B. Maintain adaptive potential in target genes and traits	Population	Identification and maintenance of genetic variation in candidate genes for adaptation	Focus of candidate gene work is on model species, but increasingly being applied to nonmodel systems
		Identification/maintenance of variation in key quantitative traits (heritability/evolvability)	Potentially could be used to assess selection response potential but still fairly rarely measured
C. Identify species with little adaptive potential = low diversity in key ecological traits	Multiple populations of one species	Measure and identify traits involved in maintaining distribution with low heritability/evolvability or other constraints limiting directional evolution	Requires substantial genetic information on target species unless ecological correlates can be identified
D. Identify and protect evolutionary refugia	Multiple populations of multiple species within a landscape	Identify hotspots with high levels of mtDNA/nuclear DNA variation (neutral)	Depends on the accumulation of data across multiple species
		Identify mtDNA/nuclear DNA uniqueness across regions	Depends on the accumulation of data across multiple species, could be applied at higher taxonomic levels to preserve evolutionary uniqueness
E. Increase connectedness and gene flow across environmental gradients	Multiple populations in a landscape	Movement of genes within landscape	Involves gene flow rather than just migration of individuals
		Allow in situ selection across heterogeneous areas and climatic gradients	Needs large populations to ensure effective selection of high fitness genotypes
F. Increase adaptability to future environments by translocation	Population	Introduction of genetic material from provenances that match likely future climate at a site	Genotypes can be matched to likely future environments, but approach still rarely applied outside of deliberate introductions of species