Table 2.

Examples of hypothalamic neuropeptide regulation of LH release.

Neuro-peptide	Origin of cell bodies	Expression of receptors in GnRH neurons	Metabolic regulation of neuropeptide gene expression	Effect of neuropeptide treatment on LH release in vivo	Infusion site	Species and hormone treatment	References
AgRP	ARC	?	Food restriction ↑	Stimulatory	3V	Rat: intact male	Stanley et al. (1999), Vulliemoz et al. (2005)
				Inhibitory	3V	Monkey: OVX
NPY	ARC	NPY Y5	Food restriction↑	Inhibitory	3V	Rat: OVX	McDonald et al. (1989), Kaynard et al. (1990), Malven et al. (1992), Leupen et al. (1997) Leupen and Levine (1999), Advis et al. (2003), Tortoriello et al. (2004), Morrison et al. (2005)
				Inhibitory	3V	Sheep: OVX
		NPY Y2	HFD ↑	Stimulatory	ME	Sheep: intact
			Insulin ↓	Stimulatory	iv.	Rat: at proestrus, OVX + E2 + P
			Leptin ↓	Inhibitory	3V	Monkey: OVX + vehicle, OVX + E2
POMC α-MSH	ARC	MC4R	Fasting ↑	Inhibitory	ME, mPOA	Rat: OVX and ADX, E2	Gonzalez et al. (1997)
						Rat: OVX and ADX, E2 + P
GALP	ARC	Receptor unknown	Fasting ↓	Stimulatory	ICV	Mice: intact male	Jureus et al. (2000), Takatsu et al. (2001), Krasnow et al. (2003), Kauffman et al. (2005), Castellano et al. (2006b), Takenoya et al. (2006), Rich et al. (2007)
			STZ–diabetes ↓	Stimulatory	ICV	Rat: adult and pubertal male
				No effect	ICV	Rat: adult and pubertal female
			Leptin ↑	Stimulatory	ICV	Female mice: OVX, E2 + P
				Stimulatory	ICV	STZ–diabetic male rat
			Insulin ↑	Stimulatory	LV	Castrated male monkey
Orexin A	LHA	OR-1	Fasting ↓	Stimulatory	ICV	Rat: fasted, OVX, E2 + P	Mondal et al. (1999), Tamura et al. (1999), Lopez et al. (2000), Kohsaka et al. (2001), Bertile et al. (2003), Small et al. (2003), Gallmann et al. (2006)
				Stimulatory	rPOA	Rat: OVX, E
			Leptin ↑	Inhibitory	ICV, 3V	Rat: OVX
				Inhibitory	mPOA	Rat: OVX
				Inhibitory	mPOA, ARC/ME	Rat: OVX, E2 + P
MCH	LHA, ZI	MCH1	Fasting ↓	Inhibitory	3V	Rat: OVX + E2	Gonzalez et al. (1997), Tsukamura et al. (2000), Chiocchio et al. (2001), Williamson-Hughes et al. (2005), Murray et al. (2006)
			Leptin ↓	Stimulatory	mPOA, ME	Rat: OVX + ADX + E2
Nesfatin-1	LHA, PVN, SON	Receptor unknown	Fasting ↓	Stimulatory	ICV	Pubertal female rats	Garcia-Galiano et al. (2010)
				Stimulatory	ICV	Fasted pubertal female rats
				No effect	ICV	Adult female rats
Kisspeptin	ARC, AVPV	GPR54	Fasting ↓	Stimulatory	LV	Rat: intact male	Irwig et al. (2004), Navarro et al. (2004), Castellano et al. (2005), Castellano et al. (2006a), Foukas et al. (2006), Clarkson et al. (2008), Kalamatianos et al. (2008), Castellano et al. (2009), Quennell et al. (2011)
			HFD ↓	Stimulatory	ICV	Rat: fasted female
				Stimulatory	ICV	Rat: STZ–diabetic intact male and ORX male
			STZ–diabetes ↓	Stimulatory	ICV	Rat: STZ–diabetic female, intact, and OVX
				Stimulatory	ICV	Rat: food restricted adult and pubertal female
			Leptin ↑	Stimulatory	ICV	Rat: adult and pubertal female