Table 1.
Long-term effects of prenatal stress exposure in young adults: summary of our studies.
| Outcome | Finding | Potential implications | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Body composition and metabolic function | ↑ BMI; ↑ % body fat ↑ Insulin 2 h after oral glucose tolerance test ↑ Leptin ↓ Fasting HDL; ↑ fasting VLDL |
Risk for cardiometabolic disorders/type 2 diabetes | Entringer et al. 2008 Am J Ob Gyn [90] |
|
| |||
| Endocrine system | ↑ ACTH, ↓ cortisol in response to psychosocial stress test ↓ Cortisol levels in response to ACTH1-24 stimulation test |
Susceptibility for psychosomatic disorders | Entringer et al. 2009 Horm Behav [91] |
|
| |||
| Immune system | TH2 shift in TH1/TH2 balance after PHA stimulation ↑ IL-6, IL-10 after PHA stimulation |
Risk for allergies, atopic disease, and asthma | Entringer et al. 2008 Dev Psychobiol [92] |
|
| |||
| Cognitive function | ↓Working memory performance after hydrocortisone administration | Impaired prefrontal cortex-related executive function | Entringer et al. 2009 Behav Neurosci [93] |
|
| |||
| Cellular aging | ↓ Leukocyte telomere length | Risk for age-related degenerative disorders | Entringer et al. 2011 PNAS [94] |
BMI: body mass index; HDL: low-density lipoprotein; VLDL: very low-density lipoprotein; ACTH: adrenocorticotrophic hormone; PHA: phytohemagglutinin; TH: T-helper cell; IL: interleukin.