Table 3. Mixed-effects logistic regression of depression: Main effects model (Model 1).
| Variables | Coefficients | (SE) | Odds Ratio | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Individual-level variables | ||||
| Age as of 1993 | -0.0233 | (0.0067) | 0.9769 | *** |
| Female | 0.1547 | (0.0550) | 1.1673 | *** |
| African-American - non-Hispanic | -0.0904 | (0.0952) | 0.9135 | |
| Hispanic | 0.3154 | (0.1669) | 1.3708 | * |
| Education (years in school) | -0.0347 | (0.0089) | 0.9659 | *** |
| Wealth, non-housing (logged) | -0.0132 | (0.0064) | 0.9869 | ** |
| Income, total household (logged) | -0.0437 | (0.0255) | 0.9572 | * |
| Rural | -0.1132 | (0.1032) | 0.8929 | |
| ADL/IADL limitations – individual means | 0.3273 | (0.0138) | 1.3873 | *** |
| – change | 0.2138 | (0.0204) | 1.2384 | *** |
| Cognitive limitations – individual means | 0.0318 | (0.0054) | 1.0323 | *** |
| – change | 0.0082 | (0.0089) | 1.0083 | |
| No. Medical conditions | 0.2341 | (0.0212) | 1.2638 | *** |
| Married | -0.5896 | (0.0965) | 0.5545 | *** |
| Live alone | 0.2081 | (0.0639) | 1.2314 | *** |
| Have any child alive | 0.0271 | (0.0720) | 1.0275 | |
| Spouse: Age (in months) | 0.0130 | (0.0065) | 1.0131 | * |
| ADL/IADL limitations – individual means | 0.0375 | (0.0351) | 1.0382 | |
| – change | 0.0732 | (0.0406) | 1.0760 | * |
| Cognitive limitations – individual means | 0.0492 | (0.0129) | 1.0505 | *** |
| – change | 0.0229 | (0.0114) | 1.0232 | ** |
| # Medical Conditions | 0.1150 | (0.0374) | 1.1218 | *** |
| Non-spouse informal help availability | -0.4329 | (0.0650) | 0.6486 | *** |
| Spouse help – current | 0.1877 | (0.0985) | 1.2065 | * |
| Response pattern: Died during the study period | 0.3045 | (0.0615) | 1.3559 | *** |
| Lost-to follow-up/missed interviews | -0.0233 | (0.0817) | 1.2380 | *** |
| State-level variable | ||||
| HCBS expenditures per 65+ Person (logged) | -0.0056 | (0.0343) | 0.9944 | |
| Income inequalitya | 0.1780 | (0.0531) | 1.1948 | *** |
| Urbanization level | 0.0020 | (0.0033) | 1.0020 | |
| Time | ||||
| Time (years since 1993 interview) | -0.2416 | (0.0474) | 0.7854 | *** |
| Time Square | 0.0732 | (0.0142) | 1.0759 | *** |
| Time Cubic | -0.0052 | (0.0011) | 0.9948 | *** |
| _Constant | -5.4936 | (1.0410) | 0.0041 | *** |
*
p ≤ 0.10
**
p ≤ 0.05
***
p ≤ 0.01 (two-tailed tests).
SE=Standard errors, adjusted for clustering in states. ADL = activity of daily living; IADL = instrumental ADL; HCBS=Home and community-based services. The analytic data include18,880 observations represented by 6,535 respondents who lived in 41 states.
a
The GINI coefficient. The effect is expressed in terms of a one standard deviation unit of change.