Table 1.
Image restoration strategies (adapted from Benoit, 1997)
| Strategy | Key characteristics | Illustration |
|---|---|---|
| Denial | ||
| Simple denial | Did not perform act; act is not problematic; consequences are not problematic | Nestlé: Claim that 1.5 million babies die because of formula feeding is incorrect |
| Shift the blame | Act performed by another; consequences are due to another’s acts | Kraft: Individuals are responsible for their choices |
| Victimization* | Claim victimization by accuser | Nestlé: Nongovernmental organizations unfairly accuse Nestlé |
| Evasion of responsibility | ||
| Provocation | Responding to needs of others | Philip Morris/Kraft: Selling product desired by consumers |
| Defeasibility | Lack of ability to ameliorate | Philip Morris: Unable to make cigarettes safe |
| Accident | Act was an accident | Not used |
| Good intentions | Act was meant well | Not used |
| Reducing offensiveness | ||
| Bolstering | Stress good traits; ally or associate with entities of good reputation | Nestlé: Works with nongovernmental organizations to develop guidelines |
| Minimization | Act not serious; consequences exaggerated | Philip Morris: Secondhand smoke exposure is an issue of comfort and choice |
| Differentiation | Act is less offensive than others | Not used |
| Transcendence | More important considerations | Nestlé: Infant formula saves lives of babies not able to breastfeed |
| Attack accuser | Reduce credibility of accuser | Nestlé: Advocates are intransigent |
| Compensation | Reimburse victim | Not used |
| Corrective action | ||
| Product* | Change product to correct problem | Kraft: Adding low-calorie options to product lines |
| Packaging* | Change packaging, advertising, or labeling to correct problem | Nestlé: labels say that breastfeeding is best |
| Disclosure or cooperation* | Acknowledge act and/or agree to cooperate with regulatory authorities | Philip Morris: Cigarettes are dangerous and addictive Nestlé: Abides by World Health Organization guidelines |
| Others* | Suggests actions to be taken by others | Philip Morris: Government should require warning signs about secondhand smoke |
| Kids* | Take action directed to protect children | Kraft: Will not advertise to preschool-age children |
| Mortification | Apologize for act | Not used |
*
Expanded from Benoit (1997).