Table 3.
EDCs with reported low-dose effects in animals (or humans, where stated)
| Chemical | Use | EDC action | Low-dose cutoff | Affected endpoint | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aroclor 1221 (PCB mixture) | Coolants, lubricants, paints, plastics | Mimics estrogens, antiestrogenic activity, etc. | 0.1–1 mg/kg (produces human blood levels) | Brain sexual dimorphisms | 683, 684 |
| Atrazine | Herbicide | Increases aromatase expression | 200 μg/liter (334, 335) | Male sexual differentiation/development | See this review |
| BPA | Plastics, thermal papers, epoxy resins | Binds ER, mER, ERRγ, PPARγ, may weakly bind TH receptor and AR | 400 μg/kg · d (produces human blood concentrations) | Prostate, mammary gland, brain development and behavior, reproduction, immune system, metabolism | See this review |
| Chlordane | Insecticide | Binds ER | 100 ng/g (produces human blood levels) | Sexually dimorphic behavior | 685 |
| Chlorothalonil | Fungicide, wood protectant | Aromatase inhibitor | 164 μg/liter (environmental concentrations, EPA) | Corticosterone levels (amphibians) | 686 |
| Chlorpyrifos | Insecticide | Antiandrogenic | 1 mg/kg · d (EPA) | Acetylcholine receptor binding (brain) | 687 |
| DDT | Insecticide | Binds ER | 0.05 mg/kg (EPA) | Neurobehavior | 688 |
| DES | Synthetic hormone | Binds ER | 0.3–1.3 mg/kg · d (dose typically administered to pregnant women) | Prostate weight | 689 |
| Dioxin (TCDD) | Industrial byproduct | Binds AhR | 1 μg/kg · d (397) | Spermatogenesis, immune function and oxidative stress, tooth and bone development, female reproduction, mammary gland, behavior | See this review |
| Genistein | Phytoestrogen | Binds ER | 50 mg/kg (EPA) | Brain sexual dimorphisms | 690 |
| Heptachlor | Insecticide | Induces testosterone hydroxylases | 0.15 mg/kg · d (EPA) | Immune responses | 691 |
| Hexachlorobenzene | Fungicide | Modulates binding of ligand to TRE, weakly binds AhR | 0.08 mg/kg · d (EPA) | Anxiety and aggressive behaviors | 692 |
| Maneb | Fungicide | Inhibits TSH release, may bind PPARγ | 5 mg/kg · d (EU Commission) | Testosterone release | 693 |
| Methoxychlor | Insecticide | Binds ER | 5 mg/kg · d (WHO) | Immune system | 694, 695 |
| 4-Methylbenzylidine camphor | UV screen | Weakly estrogenic | 10 mg/kg · d (Europa) | Sexual behavior | 696 |
| Methyl paraben | Preservative | Estrogenic | 1000 mg/kg · d (EFSA) | Uterine tissue organization | 697 |
| Nicotine | Natural alkaloid in tobacco | Binds acetylcholine receptors, stimulates epinephrine | Human use of nicotine substitutes | Incidence of cryptorchidism (humans) | 698 |
| Nonylphenol | Detergents | Weakly estrogenic | 15 mg/kg · d (EPA) | Testosterone metabolism | 699 |
| Octylphenol | Rubber bonding, surfactant | Weakly binds ER, RXR, PRGR | 10 mg/kg · d (700) | Testes endpoints | 701 |
| Parathion | Insecticide | 0.2 mg/kg · d (WHO) | Cognitive and emotional behaviors | 702 | |
| PBDE-99 | Flame retardant | Alters TH synthesis | 0.3 mg/kg · d (EPA) | TH levels in blood | 703 |
| PCB180 | Industrial lubricant, coolant | Impairs glutamate pathways, mimics estrogen | Examined normal human populations | Diabetes (humans) | 704 |
| PCB mixtures | Coolants, lubricants, paints, plastics | Binds AhR, mimic estrogens, antiestrogenic activity, etc. | Each at environmentally relevant levels | TH levels | 705 |
| Perchlorate | Fuel, fireworks | Blocks iodide uptake, alters TH | 0.4 mg/kg · d (436) | TSH levels (humans) | See this review |
| Sodium fluoride | Water additive (to prevent dental caries), cleaning agent | Inhibits insulin secretion, PTH, TH | 4 mg/liter water (EPA standard) | Bone mass and strength | 706 |
| Tributyltin oxide | Pesticide, wood preservation | Binds PPARγ | 0.19 mg/kg · d (EPA) | Obesity | 707 |
| Triclosan | Antibacterial agent | Antithyroid effects, androgenic and estrogenic activity | 12 mg/kg · d (Europe SCCP) | Altered uterine responses to ethinyl estradiol | 708 |
| Vinclozolin | Fungicide | Antiandrogenic | 1.2 mg/kg · d (EPA) | Male fertility | 709 |
EDC action indicates that for some chemicals, an effect is observed (i.e. estrogenic, androgenic), but for many EDCs, complete details of receptor binding are unavailable or incomplete. Low-dose cutoff means the lowest dose tested in traditional toxicology studies, or doses in the range of human exposure, depending on the data available. Affected endpoint means at least one example of an endpoint that shows significant effects below the low-dose cutoff dose. This list is not comprehensive, and the lack of an endpoint on this table does not suggest that low doses do or do not affect any other endpoints. AR, Androgen receptor; EFSA, European Food Safety Authority; ERR, estrogen related receptor; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ; PRGR, progesterone receptor; RXR, retinoid X receptor; SCCP, Scientific Committee on Consumer Products; TH, thyroid hormone; TRE, thyroid response element; WHO, World Health Organization.