Table 4.
Select examples of EDCs whose potential low-dose effects on animals remain to be studied
| Chemical | Use | EDC action | Low-dose cutoff |
|---|---|---|---|
| Antiseptics and preservatives | |||
| Butyl paraben | Preservative (cosmetics) | Estrogenic, antiandrogenic | 2 mg/kg · d (EPA) |
| Propyl paraben | Antimicrobial preservative found in pharmaceuticals, foods, cosmetics, and shampoos | Estrogenic activity | LOAEL 10 mg/kg · d, NOEL 6.5 mg/kg · d (Europa) |
| Cosmetics and personal care products | |||
| 2,4-Dihydroxybenzophenone | UV absorber in polymers, sunscreen agent | Estrogenic activity | Not identified |
| 3-Benzylidene camphor | UV blocker used in personal care products | Estrogenic activity | 0.07 mg/kg · d (710) |
| 4,4′-Dihydroxybenzophenone | UV light stabilizer used in plastics, cosmetics, adhesives, and optical fiber | Estrogenic activity | Not identified |
| Benzophenone-2 | Used in personal care products such as aftershave and fragrances | Estrogenic activity, changes in T4, T3, and TSH levels, alterations in cholesterol profile | NOEL 10–333 mg/kg · d (711) |
| Benzophenone-3 | UV filter | Estrogenic, PPARγ activator | 200 mg/kg · d (Europa) |
| Multiple use (other) | |||
| Melamine | Flame-retardant additive and rust remover; used to make laminate, textile, and paper resins; metabolite of cyromazine | Affects voltage-gated K+ and Na+ channels and Ca2+ concentrations in hippocampal neurons | 63.0 mg/kg · d (FDA) |
| Resorcinol | Used in the manufacturing of cosmetics, dyes, flame retardants, hair dye formulations, pharmaceuticals, skin creams, and tires | Alters T4 and TSH levels | 80.00 mg/kg · d (Europa) |
| Pesticides | |||
| Aldrina | Insecticide | Estrogenic activity | 0.025 mg/kg · d (Health Canada) |
| Alachlor | Herbicide | Decreases serum T4, binds PR, weakly binds ER | 1 mg/kg · d (EPA) |
| Amitrole | Herbicide | Decreases thyroid hormone | 0.12 mg/kg · d (FAO) |
| Bitertanol | Fungicide | Alters aromatase | 30 mg/kg · d (EPA) |
| Carbendazim | Fungicide | Affects FSH, LH, and testosterone levels; alters spermatogenesis and Sertoli cell morphology | 8 mg/kg · d (712) |
| Diazinon | Insecticide | Alters glucocorticoids | 0.065 mg/kg · d (CDC) |
| Endrina | Insecticide | Stimulates glucocorticoid receptor | 0.025 mg/kg · d (CDC) |
| Fenoxycarb | Insecticide | Alters acetylcholinesterase | 260 mg/kg · d (CDC) |
| Mirexa | Insecticide | Decreases testosterone levels | 0.075 mg/kg · d (CDC) |
| Zineb | Fungicide | Alters T4 and dopamine levels | LOAEL 25 mg/kg · d (EPA) |
| Ziram | Fungicide | Alters norepinephrine levels | 1.6 mg/kg · d (EPA) |
| Resins | |||
| Bisphenol F | Used in polycarbonates | Alters T4, T3, and adiponectin levels, has estrogenic activity | LOAEL 20 mg/kg · d (713) |
| Styrene | Precursor to polystyrene | Alters dopamine | 200 mg/kg · d (EPA) |
PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ; PR, progesterone receptor.
a
These chemicals were identified in the 1990s as part of the dirty dozen, 12 chemicals that were acknowledged to be the worst chemical offenders because of their persistence in the environment, their ability to accumulate through the food chain, and concerns about adverse effects of exposures to wildlife and humans. These chemicals were banned by the Stockholm convention and slated for virtual elimination. Yet there is still very little known about the low-dose effects of these chemicals, likely in the range of past and current human and/or wildlife exposures.