Table 4.

Causes of parkinsonism

Heredodegenerative

Dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal syndrome, fragile X-tremor ataxia syndrome, neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (includes pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration, PLA2G6-associated neurodegeneration or PARK 14, neuroferritinopathy, aceruloplasminemia, and FA2H-associated neurodegeneration), pallido-pyramidal syndromes (includes Kufor-Rakeb disease or PARK9, and neurodegeneration associated with FBXO7 mutations or PARK 15), Perry syndrome (DCTN1 mutations), X-linked dystonia parkinsonism (DYT3, Lubag), dopa-responsive dystonia (DYT5), rapid-onset dystonia parkinsonism (DYT12), autosomal recessive dystonia parkinsonism (DYT16), dopamine transporter deficiency syndrome (mutations in SLC6A3), SENDA syndrome, Huntington’s disease, Huntington disease-like type 2, chorea-acanthocytosis, MacLeod syndrome, some spinocerebellar ataxias (SCA3, SCA6, SCA8, SCA13, and SCA17), dentato-rubro-pallido-luysian atrophy, hereditary spastic paraparesis types 11 (SPG11) and 15 (SPG15), frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism (FTDP-17), prion disease (Creutzfeldt-Jakob, Gertsmann-Sträussler-Scheinker), parkinsonism-dementia-ALS complex of Guam (Lytico-Bodig), Fahr’s disease, intraneuronal cytoplasmic inclusion disease, and neurofilament inclusion body disease

Structural brain lesions

Cerebrovascular disease, infectious brain lesions (e.g., cryptococcosis, neurosyphilis), postencephalitic (e.g., encephalitis lethargica), postanoxic injury, posttraumatic (e.g., dementia pugilistica), toxic (e.g., MPTP, ephedrone, manganese, carbon monoxide, cyanide), metabolic disorders (Wilson, Niemann-Pick Type C, Gaucher, GM1 gangliosidosis, phenylketonuria, cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis, maple syrup urine disease, mitochondrial disorders with striatal necrosis, ceroid neuronal lipofuscinosis), secondary Fahr’s syndrome, non-Wilsonian acquired hepatocerebral degeneration, hemiparkinsonism-hemiatrophy syndrome, hydrocephalus, and intracranial tumors

Drug-induced

Typical antipsychotics (e.g., haloperidol, chlorpromazine), most atypical antipsychotics (riperidone, olanzapine), tetrabenazine, reserpine, methyldopa, metoclopramide, flunarizine, cinnarizine, verapamil, valproic acid, lithium, and others

Psychogenic (functional)

Table compiled with data from Schrag and Schott 2006; Wijemanne and Jankovic 2007; Alvarez and Evidente 2008; Edwards et al. 2008c; Farrer et al. 2009; Klein et al. 2009; Schneider et al. 2009; Kruer et al. 2010; Schneider and Bhatia 2010; Carecchio et al. 2011; Kurian et al. 2011.

Most disorders in the first group are degenerative.

Abbreviations: ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; MPTP, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine.