Table 7.
Author, year | Country (Data source) |
Study design | Dates of data collection | Population | Intervention, n | Smoking measure | Effect on smoking initiation, cessation or prevalence |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Smoking initiation | |||||||
| |||||||
Bauman et al., 1991 [145] | US (original data) | Cluster RCT | 1985–1987 | Youths, ages 12–14 | (I) 8 30-second radio messages focused on 7 expected consequences of smoking broadcasted over 3 1-month periods; (C) no mass media campaign*, 951 total nonsmokers at baseline |
Ever puffed a cigarette | Among nonsmokers at baseline, differences relative to comparison group at 11–17 months after broadcasts ended (i) Smoking experimentation: 1% (P = NS) (ii) Regular smoking: 2% (P = NS) (iii) Recent smoking: 1% (P = NS) |
| |||||||
Farrelly et al., 2009 [75] | US (NLSY97) | Longitudinal study | 1997–2004 | Youths, ages 12–17 | (I) TV campaign with cumulative exposure between 2000–2004 of 3096–32137 GRPs across 210 media markets, 8904 | Ever smoked a cigarette | HR = 0.8 (95% CI: 0.71–0.91; P = 0.001) (per 10,000 GRP cumulative exposure) |
| |||||||
Linkenbach and Perkins, 2003 [72] | US (original data) | Longitudinal study | 2000–2001 | Youths, junior and senior high school students; mean age = 14.6; 50% male |
(I) 1500 GRPs (broadcast TV); 78,000 print and promotional items distributed in schools; 4 theater slides were run over 1 month at 2 movie theaters; 1 billboard design appeared in 4 locations for 1 month, 299; (C) control, 314 |
Having tried cigarette smoking | 12-month follow-up smoking prevalence: (I) 10% (C) 17% Relative measure: 41% lower rate of initiation in intervention group (P < 0.05) |
| |||||||
Flynn et al., 1997 [73] | US (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1985–1991 | Youths, grades 4–6 | (I) 540 TV and 350 radio broadcasts per year for 4 years plus school intervention; (C) school intervention |
Smoked >0 cigarettes in past week | 4-year follow-up smoking prevalence: (I) 7.5% (C) 13.0% 6-year followup smoking prevalence: (I) 15.9% (C) 20.2% OR = 0.73 |
| |||||||
Hafstad et al., 1997 [74] | Norway (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1992–1995 | Youths, ages 14-15 | (I) 3 annual campaigns of 1 TV and cinema ad 167 times, 3 full-page ads in 5 newspapers, 1 poster in each location run for 3 weeks; (C) control county |
Weekly smoking |
Males
1-year initiation rate (I) 10.2% (C) 14.5% OR = 0.67 (95% CI: 0.53; 0.85) Females 1-year initiation rate (I) 14.6% (C) 25.6% OR = 0.77 (95% CI: 0.63; 0.95) |
| |||||||
Smoking cessation | |||||||
| |||||||
Solomon et al., 2009 [80] | US (original data) | Cluster RCT | 2001–2004 | Youths, grades 7–10; 45% male |
(I) radio and TV campaign with 380 GRPs/week over 9 months each year for 3 years, 531; (C) no intervention, 601 |
Not smoking one cigarette in past 30 days | 12-month quit rate (I) 18.1% (C) 14.8% 24-month quit rate (I) 14.5% (C) 12.6% 36-month quit rate (I) 16.0% (C) 12.8% Relative measure: no significant time trend or interaction between condition and time |
| |||||||
Terry-McElrath et al., 2011 [81] | US (MTF) | Longitudinal | 2001–2008 | Adults, age 20–30 | 24-month sum of antitobacco TV advertising measured in GRPs, 7997 | Smoked 0 cigarettes/day in past 30 days |
<52 GRPS (ref) 52–103 GRPs aOR: 1.15 (95% CI: 0.91; 1.45) 104–155 GRPs aOR: 1.40 (95% CI: 1.07; 1.83) 156–207 GRPs aOR: 1.21 (95% CI: 0.90; 1.63) 208+ GRPs aOR: 1.22 (95% CI: 0.90; 1.66) |
| |||||||
Burns and Levinson, 2010 [82] | US (original data collection) | Longitudinal | 2007 | Adults, age 18+ 41–50% male |
(I) Spanish-language TV campaign with 1387.4 GRPs for 1 month, radio ads, and 1900 30-second spots on movie screens, 117 (C) non-Spanish speaking population, 193 |
6-month abstinence | Quit rate prior to campaign (I) 9.6% (C) 16.5% Quit rate post campaign (I) 18.8%; P < 0.05 (C) 8.8%; P = 0.01 |
| |||||||
Durkin et al., 2009 [146] | US (UMass Tobacco Study) | Longitudinal | 2001–2004 | Adults mean age = 41 45% male |
24-month GRPs | 1-month abstinence | Quit rate, 16% |
| |||||||
Hyland et al., 2006 [147] | US (COMMIT) | Longitudinal study | 1988–2001 | Adults, ages 24–64 | (I) TV campaign above 1218 GRPs in 1999-2000 (C) TV campaign below 1218 GRPs in 1999-2000 |
NR | 24-month quit rate (I) 12.9% (C) 11.0% RR = 1.1 (95% CI: 0.98–1.24) (per increase in 5000 GRPs of exposure) |
| |||||||
Ronda et al., 2004 [76] | Netherlands (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1998–2001 | Adults, ages 18+ 39–47% male; Mean age: 46–50 years |
(I) Billboard, print, radio, TV, posters and postcards in waiting rooms and public buildings; 4 months spread over 2 years† | Not having smoking any tobacco in last 7 days | 24-month quit rate (I) 12.3% (C) 14.3% 36-month quit rate (I) 18.7% (C) 18.6% relative measure: no association between intervention and smoking outcome in regression models (not reported) |
| |||||||
McVey and Stapleton, 2000 [148] | England (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1992–1994 | Adults, ages 16+ 41-42% male; Mean age: 46 years |
(I) 18-month TV campaign, 1744; (C) no intervention, 719 |
No smoking at all nowadays | 18-month quit rate (I) 9.7% (C) 8.7% OR = 1.27 (95% CI: 0.77–2.08; P = 0.35) |
| |||||||
Hafstad et al., 1997 [74] | Norway (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1992–1995 | Youths, ages 14-15 | (I) 3 annual campaigns of 1 TV and cinema ad 167 times, 3 full-page ads in 5 newspapers, 1 poster in each location run for 3 weeks, 1061; (C) control county, 1288 |
Weekly smoking |
Males
1-year quit rate (I) 12.7% (C) 19.1% OR = 0.63 Females 1-year quit rate (I) 25.6% (C) 17.6% OR = 1.9 |
| |||||||
Smoking prevalence | |||||||
| |||||||
Flynn et al., 2010 [83] | US (original data collection) | Cluster RCT | 2001–2005 | Youths, grades 7–12, 46% male |
(I) 380 GRPs from TV ads per week, 215 GRPs from radio ads, 10,412; (C) no intervention, 9544 |
Smoking in past 30 days | Baseline smoking prevalence (I) 18.9% (C) 17.8% Smoking intervention at 4 year followup (I) 16.9% (C) 15.5%; P = 0.95 |
| |||||||
Wakefield et al., 2008 [27] | Australia (Roy Morgan Single Source) | Time series | 1995–2006 | Adults, age 18+ | 138-month TV campaign, 288.5 mean monthly GRPs, 343,835 | Smoke factory-made cigarettes | Prevalence percentage point change two months later (i.e., 2 month lag) per 1 GRP per month increase:−0.00077 (95% CI: −0.00144, −0.0001; P = 0.025) |
| |||||||
Hafstad et al., 1997 [74] | Norway (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1992–1995 | Youths, ages 14-15 | (I) 3 annual campaigns of 1 TV and cinema ad 167 times, 3 full-page ads in 5 newspapers, 1 poster in each location run for 3 weeks, 2742; (C) control county, 3438 |
Weekly smoking | OR = 0.74 (95% CI: 0.64; 0.86) Males Baseline prevalence (I) 6.9% (C) 9.9% 1-year prevalence (I) 13.7% (C) 20.4% Females Baseline prevalence (I) 10.1% (C) 11.4% 1-year prevalence (I) 18.7% (C) 23.8% |
| |||||||
Flynn et al., 1995 [149] Worden et al., 1996 [150] Flynn et al., 1992 [151] Flynn et al., 1994 [152] Worden and Flynn, 2002 [153] Flynn et al., 1997 [73] |
US (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1985–1991 | Youths, grades 4–6; mean age: 10.6 years, 48–54% male |
(I) 540 TV and 350 radio broadcasts per year for 4 years plus school intervention; (C) school intervention |
Smoked >0 cigarettes in past week | Baseline prevalence (I) 1% (C) 1.6% 6-year prevalence (I) 16.5% (C) 24% OR = 0.62 (95% CI: 0.49; 0.78) Females 4-year prevalence (I) 12.7%; P < 0.01 (C) 21.1% 6-year prevalence (I) 16.5% (C) 29.4%; P < 0.01 Males 4-year prevalence (I) 9.8%;, P = 0.16 (C) 14.4% 6-year prevalence (I) 13.0% (C) 17.1%; P = 0.23 |
| |||||||
Steenkamp et al., 1991 [77] | South Africa (original data) | Longitudinal study | 1979–1983 | Adults, ages 15–64 46% male |
(I) 48-month billboard, print, poster, and mailing campaign‡, 1531; (C) control, 1308 |
Smoking an average of at least 1 cigarette or 1 gram of tobacco per day | Baseline prevalence (I) 28.1% (C) 29.5% 4-year prevalence (I) 18.8% (C) 19.9% percentage Reduction (I) −32.6% (C) −33.3% Net percentage change in smoking prevalence relative to control Males: 2.0% Females: −19.2% |
| |||||||
Meshack et al., 2004 [154] | US (original data) | Before/after with comparison | Spring 2000–December 2000 | Youths, grade 6 52% male |
(I) 3 × 3 media and community program; media programs involved TV, radio, billboard, and print; $0.50 per capita in low-intensity group; $1.00 per capita in high-intensity group, 3618 | Tobacco use in past 30 days | Percent change in prevalence at 8.5 months (among groups with no community program): High intensity: −20.8% Low intensity: −45.3% Comparison: −28.3% |
| |||||||
Sly et al., 2001 [79] | US (original data) | Before/after with comparison | 1998-1999 | Youths, ages 12–17 | (I) 12-month campaign with TV, radio, billboard, display ads, promotional items (stickers, lanyards, hats, t-shirts, etc.), 1600 GRPs per quarter, 1800; (C) control, 1000 |
At least a puff or two in the past 30 days | Baseline prevalence (I) 13.8% (C) 12.6% 12-month prevalence (I) 12.6% (C) 14.1% Percentage change (I) −8.9% (C) 11.9% P < 0.05% |
| |||||||
Farrelly et al., 2005 [78] | US (MTF) | Before/after w/o comparison | 1997–2002 | Youths, grades 8, 10, and 12 | (I) 24-month TV campaign with 3867–20367 GRPs (cumulative exposure over 2-year period for the lowest and highest quintiles of exposure) | Any smoking in past 30 days | Percentage annual change in prevalence at 0–2 years prior to intervention: Total: −3.2% (−3.8, −2.6) 8th: −3.4% (−4.6, −2.1) 10th: −4.6% (−5.6, −3.6) 12th: −1.8% (−2.7, −1.0) Percentage annual change in prevalence at 0–2 years after intervention: Total: −6.8% (−7.5, −6.1) 8th: −9.0% (−10.4, −7.6) 10th: −8.7% (−9.8, −7.5) 12th: −5.1% (−6.1, −3.9) |
*Additionally, there were 2 other intervention groups that included sweepstakes. Since sweepstakes are not a focus of this paper, they are not included here.
†This was part of a cardiovascular disease prevention campaign.
‡This was part of a coronary risk factor campaign.
C: control group; CI: confidence interval; COMMIT: Community Intervention Trial for Smoking Cessation; GRPs: gross rating points; HR: hazard ratio; I: intervention group; MTF: Monitoring the Future: a Continuing Study of American Youth; NLSY97: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997; NR: not reported; NS: not significant; OR: odds ratio; RCT: randomized controlled trial; RR: relative risk; TV: television; US: United States.