Table 4: Quality of Evidence of Included Studies*.
| Study Design | Level of Evidence | Number of Eligible Studies |
|---|---|---|
| Large RCT,* systematic reviews of RCT | 1 | 4– caregiver-dependent techniques 4 – patient-directed techniques 1 – role of the NCA/CNS |
| Large RCT unpublished but reported to an international scientific meeting | 1(g) | |
| Small RCT | 2 | 3 – caregiver-dependent techniques 8 – patient-directed techniques 3 – role of the NCA/CNS |
| Small RCT unpublished but reported to an international scientific meeting | 2(g) | 0 |
| Non-RCT with contemporaneous controls | 3a | 0 |
| Non-RCT with historical controls | 3b | 1 – role of the NCA/CNS |
| Non-RCT presented at international conference | 3(g) | 0 |
| Surveillance (database or register) | 4a | 0 |
| Case series (multisite) | 4b | 0 |
| Case series (single site) | 4c | 0 |
| Retrospective review, modeling | 4d | 0 |
| Case series presented at international conference | 4(g) | 0 |
*
CNS refers to clinical nurse specialist; NCA, nurse continence advisor; g, grey literature; RCT, randomized controlled trial.
†
For each included study, levels of evidence were assigned according to a ranking system based on a hierarchy proposed by Goodman. (32) An additional designation “g” was added for preliminary reports of studies that have been presented at international scientific meetings.