Table 2. Determinants of the level of population exposure to unhealthy foods, beverages, and tobacco, 44 LMICs (GDP<USD12,500 per capita), 1997–2010.
| Covariate | Snacks (kg per capita) | Confections (kg per capita) | Soft drinks (litre per capita) | Ice cream (kg per capita) | Oils and fats (kg per capita) | Ready meals (kg per capita) | Processed foods (kg per capita) | Packaged foods (kg per capita) | Tobacco (USD sales per capita) | Alcohol (USD sales per capita) |
| Log GDP per capita (constant USD, purchasing power parity) | 0.81* (0.31) | 1.60*** (0.28) | 42.8*** (11.4) | 0.82** (0.26) | 2.89*** (0.78) | 0.76** (0.22) | 6.94*** (1.34) | 26.9** (8.61) | 63.8*** (13.5) | 23.0** (6.73) |
| Foreign Direct Investment as a % of GDP | 0.0085* (0.0036) | 0.0085 (0.0046) | 0.71** (0.21) | 0.0011 (0.0034) | −0.013 (0.019) | 0.0017 (0.0039) | 0.061** (0.019) | 0.27 (0.15) | 1.34 (0.68) | 0.24* (0.10) |
| Percentage of Population Living in Urban Settings | 0.024 (0.021) | −0.025 (0.019) | 2.20* (0.84) | −0.0087 (0.014) | 0.043 (0.077) | −0.027* (0.012) | 0.16 (0.21) | 1.78 (1.17) | −2.21 (1.22) | −0.41 (0.34) |
| Number of Country-Years | 341 | 560 | 609 | 560 | 560 | 489 | 472 | 560 | 609 | 609 |
| Number of Countries | 40 | 49 | 50 | 49 | 49 | 45 | 43 | 49 | 50 | 50 |
| R 2 | 0.369 | 0.495 | 0.483 | 0.235 | 0.278 | 0.345 | 0.509 | 0.311 | 0.216 | 0.411 |
Notes: Robust-clustered errors in parentheses to reflect non-independence of country sampling.
*: p<0.05,
**: p<0.01,
***: p<0.001.