Table 2.

Subcategories of Representation Strategy by Contiguity

Contiguity	Description
Physical Contiguity	Physical contiguity is used when the representation of the original concept in isolation would be difficult to identify. Thus, contiguous elements are added to the pictograph to make its meaning easier to understand. A pictograph of the concept “elbow” where the whole arm is depicted is an example of contextual concept transfer. One issue that originates from representation by physical contiguity is the relative prominence of the referent among the additional elements added to the picture. Highlighting and pointing with arrows are common strategies to make the referent stand out
Container	Another common type of metonymy is the representation of a concept through its container as in “the kettle is boiling”. Advertisements for perfumes invariably operate with this type of metonymy
Source	Indicating the originating source of a substance is another metonymic way to suggest a concept. The picture of drops, for example, can represent any liquid. However, if the drops originate from a wound their meaning become much more specific
Use	Certain concepts can be suggested by showing how they are used. For example, ophthalmic solutions are commonly represented by depicting a droplet in front of an eye
Cause or effect	Metonyms can also operate through the association of cause and effect as in “he’s an accident waiting to happen”. Pathological processes are sometimes represented through this strategy. For example, the concept “acid” can be suggested by depicting its corrosive effects
Tool	In this representation strategy, a concept is represented through an associated tool, as in the case of a picture of a scale to represent the concept “weight”, or a picture of a thermometer standing for the concept “temperature”. Occupations and professional groups are often represented by depicting related tools and apparel. For example, the concept “doctor” is commonly represented by depicting a person wearing a stethoscope
Object	This type of association focuses on the relation between an action, event or discipline and its object or subject matter. For example, “no smoking” signs commonly depict a cigarette, the object of the activity, rather than the act of smoking itself. Concepts related to disciplines or occupations are commonly represented by focusing on their subject matter (e.g., eye = ophthalmology, heart = cardiology).