Table 3.

Summary of the preclinical and clinical literature on cocaine-induced BBB dysfunction.

In vitro BBB model	Decreased transendothelial resistance (TEER)1,2
	Increased leakage of FITC-Dextran, Evans Blue, and toxins1,2,3,4,5,6
	Increased transmigration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and expression of adhesion molecules4,7,8,9,10
	Decreased expression of zona occludin 1(ZO-1), junctional adhesion molecule 2 (JAM-2), and other tight junction proteins1,2,5,7,8
	Increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines3,10,11
Rodent models	Increased leakage of Evans Blue and NaFl5,12
	Increased edema13,14
	Increased transmigration of leukocytes and expression of adhesion molecules13,15
	Decreased expression of zona occludin 1 (ZO-1)5
Clinical studies	Increased penetration of peripheral viruses like HIV16
	Increased transmigration of leukocytes and expression of adhesion molecules17

¹Fiala et al. (2005); ²Gandhi et al. (2010); ³Zhang et al. (1998); ⁴Fiala et al. (1998); ⁵Yao et al. (2011); ⁶Fiala et al. (1996); ⁷Fiala et al. (2008); ⁸Dhillon et al. (2008); ⁹Nair et al. (2004); ¹⁰Gan et al. (1999); ¹¹Lee et al. (2001); ¹²Yao et al. (2011); ¹³Barroso-Moguel et al. (1997); ¹⁴Sharma et al. (2009); ¹⁵Chang et al. (2000); ¹⁶Nath et al. (2001); ¹⁷Buch et al. (2011).