Table 1.

Examples of directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells into specific cell types

Embryonic germ layers	Differentiation factors or culture conditions or both	Example of differentiated cells
Endoderm	FGF, BMP4, hepatocyte growth factor, oncostatin M, dexamethasone	Hepatocytes [12,13]
	Activin A, Wnt3A, keratinocyte growth factor/FGF7, retinoic acid, cyclopamine, noggin	Pancreatic islet progenitors [11]
Mesoderm	Serum-free conditions; BMP4	Dendritic cells [16]
	Micromass of dissociated embryoid bodies; BMP2	Chondrocytes [100]
	High-density culture of dissociated embryoid bodies; ascorbic acid, dexamethasone	Chondrocytes [101]
	Co-culture with primary chondrocytes; poly-D, L-lactide scaffold	Chondrocytes [102]
	Serum-free conditions	Blood cells [15]
	Dense monolayer of hESCs; Activin A, BMP4	Cardiomyocytes [25]
	BMP4, BMP4/bFGF/Activin A, VEGF/DKK1, VEGF/DKK1/bFGF	Cardiomyocytes [26]
Ectoderm	FGF8, SHH	Dopaminergic neurons [29,103]
	Ciliary neutrotrophic factor, neuregulin 1β, dbcAMP	Schwann cells [34]
	Retinoic acid, SHH	Motor neurons [33]
	Withdrawal of FGF2, BDNF; addition of GDNF, NGF, dbcAMP	Peripheral sympathetic and sensory neurons [34]
	Serum-free conditions; Activin A, nicotinamide	Retinal pigment epithelium [104]
	B27, thyroid hormone, retinoic acid, FGF2, EGF, insulin	Oligodendrocytes [35]
	BMP4, ascorbic acid	Basal keratinocytes [105]

BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; bFGF, basic fibroblast growth factor; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; dbcAMP, dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate; DKK1, Dickkopf-related protein; EGF, epidermal growth factor; FGF, fibroblast growth factor; GDNF, glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor; hESC, human embryonic stem cell; NGF, nerve growth factor; SHH, sonic hedgehog; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.