Table 2.
Main chemokines and cytokines involved in the granulomatous response.
| Chemokines/cytokines | Main producers | Targets/role |
|---|---|---|
| CXCL8 (IL-8) | Alveolar macrophages. | Recruitment of neutrophils. |
| Epithelial cells of the lung. | ||
|
| ||
| CCL2 (MCP-1) | Monocytes and alveolar macrophages. | Recruitment of macrophages and other immune cells. |
|
| ||
| CCL3 (MIP-1a), CCL4 (MIP-1b) CCL5 (RANTES) | Alveolar macrophages. | Recruitment of macrophages and other immune cells. |
|
| ||
| CXCL9, CXCL10 (IP-10), CXCL11 | Bronchial epithelial cells. | Recruitment of immune cells. |
|
| ||
| CCL19/CCL21 | Stromal cells of the lymph nodes. | Recruitment and priming of IFN-γ-producing T cells. |
| Migration of DC from the lung to draining lymph nodes. | ||
|
| ||
| CXCL13 | Dendritic cells, stromal cells of the lymph nodes. | Recruitment of B cells and formation of the granuloma-associated follicular structures. |
|
| ||
| IL-12/IL-23 | Dendritic cells, macrophages. | Th1 polarisation of CD4+ T cells. |
|
| ||
| IFN-γ | CD4+ (Th1) and CD8+ T cells, NK. | Activation of macrophages. |
| Induction of NO synthesis and bacterial killing. | ||
|
| ||
| TNF-α | CD4+ T cells (Th1), macrophages. | Proinflammatory. |
| Induction of chemokine production. | ||
| Activation of macrophages. | ||
| Critical for granuloma formation. | ||
|
| ||
| IL-1 | Macrophages, DCs. | Proinflammatory. |
| Recruitment and activation of phagocytes. | ||
|
| ||
| IL-17 | LT γ/δ, CD4+ T cells (Th17). | Proinflammatory. |
| Involved in neutrophil recruitment and macrophage activation. | ||
|
| ||
| IL-10 | Tregs, B-1 cells, AAM. | Anti-inflammatory. |
| Polarisation of macrophages towards the AAM type. | ||
|
| ||
| TGF-β | Tregs, AAM. | Anti-inflammatory. |