Lung fibrosis |
S1P |
S1P1
|
Anti-fibrotic |
Attenuation of vascular
leak and intra-alveolar coagulation |
[13] |
Acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) |
? |
Pro-fibrotic |
Promotion of cellular apoptosis and fibroblast collagen synthesis |
[76] |
|
Skin fibrosis/ Scleroderma |
S1P |
S1P1,2
|
Pro-fibrotic |
Cross-activation of fibroblast TGF-β/ Smad signaling; myofibroblast differentiation |
[78-81] |
dhS1P |
S1P1,2
|
Anti-fibrotic |
Inhibition of fibroblast TGF-β/Smad signaling through PTEN upregulation |
[14, 81] |
|
Liver fibrosis |
S1P |
S1P2,3
|
Pro-fibrotic |
Hepatic stellate cell accumulation and activation; homing of bone marrow-derived cells to the injured liver |
[15, 84-88] |
Ceramide/Acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) |
? |
Pro-fibrotic |
Inhibition of fibroblast TGF-β/Smad signaling through PTEN upregulation |
[89-92] |
|
Cardiac fibrosis |
S1P |
S1P2,3
|
Pro-fibrotic |
Promotion of hepatocyte apoptosis; hepatic stellate cell proliferation
and activation |
[16, 75] |
|
Retinal fibrosis |
S1P |
? |
Pro-fibrotic |
Promotion of retinal
pigmented epithelial cell proliferation, myofibroblast differentiation,
and collagen synthesis |
[17, 93] |