Table 3.
Total difficulty score (TDS) (coefficient and 95% CI) by cultural identity status and ethnicity for male and female students, derived from multivariate linear mixed regression models
| Sample characteristics | Model 1a |
Model 2b |
Model 3c |
Model 4d |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coef. | 95% CI | Coef. | 95% CI | Coef. | 95% CI | Coef. | 95% CI | |
| Male students | ||||||||
| Cultural identity | ||||||||
| Integrated | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Assimilated | +0.40 | (0.07, 0.73) | +0.35 | (0.03, 0.68) | +0.27 | (−0.06, 0.59) | +0.25 | (−0.07, 0.58) |
| Traditional | +0.51 | (0.19, 0.83) | +0.51 | (0.20, 0.83) | +0.38 | (0.07, 0.70) | +0.39 | (0.08, 0.71) |
| Marginalized | +0.87 | (0.47, 1.26) | +0.87 | (0.47, 1.26) | +0.73 | (0.34, 1.13) | +0.74 | (0.35, 1.13) |
| Ethnicity | ||||||||
| White UK | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Other White | −0.59 | (−1.21, 0.03) | −0.67 | (−1.31, −0.04) | −0.64 | (−1.25, −0.03) | −0.72 | (−1.34, −0.11) |
| Black Caribbean | −0.62 | (−1.17, −0.08) | −0.67 | (−1.23, −0.12) | −1.00 | (−1.54, −0.45) | −1.10 | (−1.65, −0.55) |
| Nigerian/Ghanaian | −1.88 | (−2.55, −1.21) | −1.98 | (−2.69, −1.27) | −2.22 | (−2.90, −1.53) | −2.34 | (−3.04, −1.65) |
| Other African | −0.81 | (−1.48, −0.13) | −0.92 | (−1.66, −0.19) | −1.01 | (−1.72, −0.30) | −1.08 | (−1.80, −0.36) |
| Indian | −0.60 | (−1.24, 0.04) | −0.60 | (−1.26, 0.06) | −0.46 | (−1.11, 0.18) | −0.56 | (−1.21, 0.08) |
| Pakistani | −1.04 | (−1.70, −0.37) | −0.98 | (−1.67, −0.28) | −0.83 | (−1.50, −0.15) | −1.00 | (−1.68, −0.31) |
| Bangladeshi | −1.05 | (−1.96, −0.13) | −1.13 | (−2.06, −0.20) | −1.22 | (−2.13, −0.32) | −1.29 | (−2.20, −0.37) |
| Mixed Black Caribbean/White | −0.34 | (−1.15, 0.47) | −0.62 | (−1.42, 0.18) | −0.70 | (−1.48, 0.07) | −0.77 | (−1.55, 0.00) |
| Other ethnicity | −0.60 | (−1.16, −0.04) | −0.78 | (−1.36, −0.20) | −0.96 | (−1.52, −0.40) | −1.04 | (−1.60, −0.48) |
| Female students | ||||||||
| Cultural identity | ||||||||
| Integrated | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Assimilated | +0.03 | (−0.35, 0.42) | +0.02 | (−0.36, 0.40) | −0.01 | (−0.38, 0.36) | −0.02 | (−0.39, 0.35) |
| Traditional | −0.05 | (−0.42, 0.32) | +0.02 | (−0.35, 0.39) | −0.02 | (−0.38, 0.34) | −0.03 | (−0.39, 0.33) |
| Marginalized | +0.37 | (−0.09, 0.83) | +0.33 | (−0.13, 0.79) | +0.25 | (−0.20, 0.70) | +0.23 | (−0.22, 0.68) |
| Ethnicity | ||||||||
| White UK | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Other White | +0.10 | (−0.64, 0.85) | +0.06 | (−0.69, 0.81) | −0.24 | (−0.96, 0.48) | −0.28 | (−1.00, 0.44) |
| Black Caribbean | 0.00 | (-0.61, 0.61) | −0.03 | (−0.65, 0.59) | −0.47 | (−1.07, 0.14) | −0.49 | (−1.10, 0.12) |
| Nigerian/-Ghanaian | −0.11 | (−0.76, 0.54) | −0.11 | (−0.80, 0.59) | −0.53 | (−1.20, 0.14) | −0.60 | (−1.27, 0.08) |
| Other African | −0.36 | (−1.13, 0.41) | −0.28 | (−1.12, 0.55) | −0.65 | (−1.45, 0.15) | −0.70 | (−1.51, 0.11) |
| Indian | −1.62 | (−2.39, −0.86) | −1.63 | (−2.39, −0.87) | −1.61 | (−2.34, −0.88) | −1.62 | (−2.35, −0.88) |
| Pakistani | +0.01 | (−1.02, 1.04) | −0.17 | (−1.17, 0.84) | −0.15 | (−1.12, 0.81) | −0.15 | (−1.13, 0.82) |
| Bangladeshi | −0.16 | (−1.36, 1.03) | −0.43 | (−1.60, 0.73) | −0.56 | (−1.68, 0.55) | −0.71 | (−1.84, 0.42) |
| Mixed Black Caribbean/White | +0.57 | (−0.27, 1.42) | +0.42 | (−0.40, 1.25) | +0.02 | (−0.77, 0.81) | −0.02 | (−0.82, 0.77) |
| Other ethnicity | −0.09 | (−0.77, 0.59) | −0.20 | (−0.88, 0.49) | −0.45 | (−1.10, 0.21) | −0.50 | (−1.16, 0.16) |
aModel 1: coefficients were estimated with linear-mixed models with random intercept and slope for age (the random slope only for male students). Regressions were performed using 45 multiple imputations of missing outcome and covariate values. Parameter point and variance estimates were combined using Rubin's rules.
bModel 2: same as model 1 + adjustment for generational status, standard of living, experience of racism and place of worship attendance.
cModel 3: same as model 2 + adjustment for family structure, parental care, parental control (control and control x age interaction) and quality of the relationship with parents.
dModel 4: same as model 3 + adjustment for contextual variables: proportion of free school meals, Income dimension of the Index of Multiple Deprivation.