Table 1.

Description of Quantitative Research

Author	Sample Characteristics	Prevalence of Distress	How Distress Was Measured	Findings
Auslander et al 199327	N = 53, 89% white Age: 11.1 y (4.3)		Stress: Family Inventory of Life Events and Changes	Family stress was a significant predictor of metabolic control after controlling for family resources and C peptide level.
Cameron et al 200726	N = 59 Age: 15.9 y (1.1) Duration: 7.3 y (4.1)		Anxiety: STAI	Maternal anxiety associated with maternal reports of higher diabetes involvement and lower adolescent management skills and with adolescent reports of higher maternal control and parental overprotectiveness.
Chaney et al 199718	N = 48 Age: 11.4 y (2.4) Duration: 2.94 y (3.2)	27% mothers at time 1, 21% at time 2; 31% fathers at time 1, 32% at time 2	Distress: Symptom Checklist 90–Revised	Increased mother and father distress associated with increased child distress.
Eckshtain et al 201013	N = 61 Age: 14.4 y (2.2) Duration: 4.4 y (2.8)	10% parents depressive symptoms (92% mothers)	Depression: Brief Symptom Inventory	Higher level of parental depression associated with lower parental monitoring,a inconsistent discipline,a and lower parental involvement/warmth.b Parental depression had indirect effect on youth depression through involvement/warmth. Parenting had direct effect on metabolic control and indirect effect through youth depression.
Hilliard et al 201057	N = 73, 69% white Age: 4.4 y (1.1) Duration: 1.5 y (1.1)	21% parents anxiety (97% mothers)	Anxiety STAI; Stress Pediatric Stress Inventory	Parental stress/anxiety associated with problematic child behavior.b Blood glucose level or variability not associated with stress/anxiety or child behavior.
Jaser et al 200812	N = 108 81.7% white Age: 9.1 y (1.46) Duration: 3.6 y (2.8)	22.2% mothers depression	Depression: CES-D	Maternal depressive symptoms were associated with greater negative impact of diabetes on child’s quality of life, higher levels of family conflict, and lower levels of family adaptability, cohesion, and child’s perception of family warmth/caring.
Jaser et al 20096	N = 67, 86% white Age: 4.8 y (1.5) Duration: 1.4 y (1.3)	21% mothers anxiety, 24% mothers depressive symptoms	Depression: CES-D; Anxiety: STAI	How upsetting it was for mothers to cope with T1DM was greatest predictor of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Anxiety and depressive symptoms not related to A1C.
Landolt et al 20028	N = 38 Age: 10.5 y (2.5) Newly diagnosed	24% mothers PTSD, 51% mothers partial PTSD, 22% fathers PTSD, 41% fathers partial PTSD	Stress: Post Traumatic Diagnostic Scale
Landolt et al 200519	N = 49 Age: 10.5 y (2.7) Newly diagnosed	22.4% mothers PTSD at 6 wk, 16.3% at 6 mo, 20.4% at 12 mo14.6% fathers PTSD at 6 wk, 10.4% at 6 mo, 8.3% at 12 mo	Stress: Post Traumatic Diagnostic Scale	The number of preceding life events,b PTSD symptoms at 6 wk,a and PTSD symptoms at 6 moc predicted PTSD symptoms at 12 mo in mothers.
Mitchell et al 200910	N = 43, 77% white Age: 4.5 y (1.1) Duration: 1.3 y (1.0)		Stress: Pediatric Parenting Stress Anxiety: STAI	Parenting stress predicted greater state anxietya and maternal rating of child behavior problems.a Fathers completed <20% of daily diabetes care.
Monaghan et al 200930	N = 71, 66% white Age: 4.5 y (1.2) Duration 1.5 y (1.1)		Stress: Pediatric Inventory for Parents; Anxiety: STAI	Parents who performed nighttime blood glucose monitoring had higher anxietyb and parenting stressa than parents who performed nighttime blood glucose monitoring rarely or never.
Mullins et al 20043	N = 43, 93% white Age: 10.1 y (1.4) Duration: 3 y (2.6)		Stress: PSI	Parenting stress and child vulnerability associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms in child. Parental stress mediated relationships between child vulnerability and depression in that stress magnifies relationship.
Northam et al 199620	N = 124 Age: 7.6 y (3.6) Newly diagnosed	38% mothers at diagnosis, 24% at 12 mo, 27% fathers at diagnosis, 22% fathers at 12 mo	Distress: General Health Questionnaire	Psychological distress decreases but does not disappear at 12 mo.
Powers et al 200222	N = 40, 85% white Age: 4.6 y (1.2) Duration: 1.94 y (1.1)		Stress: PSI	Parents of child with T1DM had higher stress compared with controls.a Children with T1DM had more feeding behavior problems compared with controls.b Feeding behaviors associated with parental stress.b
Rodrigue et al 199423	N = 53 Age: 8.7 y (1.6) Duration: 3.4 y (1.4)		Parenting Sense of Competence	Parents of child with T1DM had lower parenting competence,a lower self-efficacy,b and lower parenting satisfaction (P = .06) compared with controls. Parenting competence associated with child behavior problems.b
Stallwood 200524	N = 73 (parents) Age (parents): 35.1 y (8.6) Duration: 2.5 y (1.9)		Distress: Problem Areas in Diabetes	Families of younger children have higher levels of distress.a Higher levels of perceived distress were associated with lower levels of A1C.b
Streisand et al 200514	N = 134, 79% white Age: 12.9 y (2.0) Duration: 4.9 y		Stress: PSI	Increase parental stress associated with greater parental worry of hypoglycemia,a decreased ability to learn illness management,a increased child stress,a and decreased child self-management.a
Streisand et al 200821	N = 102, 78% white Age: 9.7 y (4.0) Newly diagnosed	74% parents mild and 61% clinical depression, 59% clinical anxiety, 61% mothers	Depression: CES-D; Anxiety: STAI; Stress: Pediatric Parenting Inventory	Anxiety associated with parental diabetes self-efficacya and parenting stress.a Depression associated with parental stress.a
Sullivan-Bolyai et al 200229	N = 28, “majority white” Duration: 0.3–2.8 y		Stress: PSI	No difference in parental stress compared with matched controls. Stress associated with increased diabetes duration.b
Viner et al 199628	N = 43 Age: 10.2 y (3.16)		Stress: Family Inventory of Life Events	High family stress associated with metabolic control.

Abbreviations: CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies–Depression; PSI, Parenting Stress Index; TSD, posttraumatic stress disorder; STAI, State–Trait Anxiety Inventory; T1DM, type 1 diabetes mellitus.

^aP < .05.

^bP < .0.