Table 1B.

Specific cytokine associations with co-morbidities

Cytokines	Effect	Reference
TNF-α	Cardiovascular: Induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cardiomyocytes inducing apoptosis.	[179]
	Neurocognitive: Predictor of time to HIV associated dementia.	[180]
	Bone loss: Triggers apoptosis in osteoblast in vitro.	[181]
IL-1α/β	Cardiovascular: Increased in enhanced cardiac iNOS.	[179]
	Neuropathology: Activation of glial cells leading to enhanced pain.	[182]
	Vasculopathy: Increased expression with leukocyte adhesion molecules in HIV infection leading to increased leukocyte adhesion, vascular permeability and leakiness.	[183]
IL-6	Lymphoma: Drives immune activation and elevated identified long before lymphoma diagnosis.	[184]
	Neurocognitive: Elevated in HIV associated neurocognitive dysfunction.	[185]
	Bone Loss: Associated with lower osteocalcin levels.	[186]
	Vasculopathy: Causes endothelial activation.	[187]
IL-10	Lymphoma: Elevated levels in non-Hodgkin’s B cell lymphoma in HIV positive individuals.	[188]
IL-18	Cardiovascular: Directly linked to the production of inflammatory cytokines and cell adhesion molecules in LPS-induced myocardial dysfunction in animal studies.	[189]
MCP-1	Cardiovascular: Induced by IL-6 and associated with atherosclerotic lesions	[190]
	Neurocognitive: Elevated in HIV associated neurocognitive dysfunction; Associated with increase in monocytes across the blood brain barrier. Correlates with brain injury in HIV infection.	[191]
TGF-β	Lymphoma: Inhibits lymphoma development	[192]
	Liver disease: Protects from fibrosis	[193]
	Nephropathy: Associated with glomerular disease and matrix accumulation	[194]
SDF-1	Cardiovascular: Protective effect on cardiomyocytes and motivation of cardiac progenitor cells.	[195]
	Neurocognitive: Polymorphism in SDF-1 abrogates protective efficacy of wildtype and associated with development of neurocognitive impairment.	[196]
IL-27	Neuropathy: Protects against Oncostatin M-mediated TNF-α expression in microglia.	[197]