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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2013 Jun 13.
Published in final edited form as: Anesthesiol Clin. 2012 Jun 13;30(2):333–346. doi: 10.1016/j.anclin.2012.04.003

Table 2. Multisystem Effects of Traumatic Brain Injury.

Cardiopulmonary

  • Abnormal breathing patterns/apnea/hypoventilation

  • Neurogenic pulmonary edema

  • Pulmonary embolism

  • Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)

  • Neurogenic stunned myocardium/myocardial ischemia
    • ○
      Abnormal electrocardiographic patterns
    • ○
      Elevated cardiac isoenzymes (CK MB and creatinine kinase)
    • ○
      Left ventricular dysfunction
Metabolic

  • Hyperglycemia and insulin resistance

  • Increased catecholamine levels

  • Increased caloric demand and nitrogen loss

Autonomic Dysfunction Syndrome

  • Hypertension, tachycardia

  • Fever, tachypnea

  • Pupillary dilatation

  • Extensor posturing

Endocrine

  • Anterior pituitary insufficiency

  • Posterior pituitary insufficiency

  • Diabetes insipidus (DI)

  • Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH)

Hematologic

  • Coagulopathy (↓ platelet count and/or ↑ International Normalized Ratio and/or activated partial thromboplastin time)

  • Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)

Gastrointestinal

  • Cushing’s ulcers (stress ulcers)

  • Gastrointestinal dysfunction and increased mucosal permeability