Table 1.

Major Themes and Representative Findings in FRN Research

Theme	Result	Representative evidence
Neural significance of the FRN	Source localized to anterior cingulate	Bellebaum & Daum, 2008 Gehring & Willoughby, 2002 Gruendler et al., 2011 Hewig et al., 2007 Mathewson et al., 2008 Miltner et al., 1997 Potts et al., 2006 Ruchsow et al., 2002 Tucker et al., 2003 Zhou et al., 2010
	Source localized to posterior cingulate	Badgaiyan & Posner, 1998 Cohen & Ranganath, 2007 a Doñamayor et al., 2011 a Luu et al., 2003 Müller et al., 2005 a Nieuwenhuis et al., 2005a a
	Source localized to basal ganglia	Carlson et al., 2011 Foti et al., 2011 Martin et al., 2009
The FRN encodes a quantitative reward prediction error	Unexpected loss - win > Expected loss – win	Bellebaum et al., 2008 b, 2010a c, 2011 b, c Cohen et al., 2007 c Eppinger et al., 2008 c Hajcak et al., 2007 c Hewig et al., 2007 d Holroyd & Coles, 2002 d Holroyd et al., 2003 c, 2009 b, c, 2011 c Kreussel et al., 2012 b, c Liao et al., 2011 b, c Martin et al., 2009 b, c, 2011 b Morris et al., 2008 b, c Nieuwenhuis et al., 2002 d Ohira et al., 2012 b Potts et al., 2006, 2010 b, c Pfabigan et al., 2011a c, 2011b b, c Smille et al., 2011 b, c Walsh & Anderson, 2011a, b b, c
	Large magnitude loss - win > Small magnitude loss - win	Bellebaum et al., 2010 b, c Goyer et al., 2008 d Hajcak et al., 2006 c Holroyd et al., 2004 c Kreussel et al., 2012 c Masaki et al., 2006 c Santesso et al., 2011 c
	Contradictory results	Hajcak et al., 2005, 2007 e Kamarajan et al., 2009 f Sato et al., 2005 f Toyomaki & Murohashi, 2005 f Yeung & Sanfey, 2004 f Yu & Zhou, 2006 f
The FRN is evoked by outcomes and by stimuli that predict outcomes	Inverse relationship between ERN and FRN	Eppinger et al., 2008 Heldmann et al., 2008 Holroyd & Coles, 2002 Morris et al., 2008 Nieuwenhuis et al., 2002
	FRN evoked by predictive cues	Baker & Holroyd, 2008 Dunning & Hajcak, 2009 Holroyd et al., 2011 Liao et al., 2011 Walsh & Anderson, 2011b
The FRN and behavior change with experience	Concurrent behavioral and neural adaptation	Bellebaum & Daum, 2008 g Cavanagh et al., 2010 h Chase et al., 2011 h Cohen et al., 2007 g Cohen & Ranganath, 2007 h Eppinger et al., 2008 g Holroyd & Coles, 2002 i Ichikawa et al., 2010 h Krigolson et al., 2009 g Morris et al., 2008 g Salier et al., 2010 g van der Vijver et al., 2011 i van der Helden et al., 2009 i Walsh & Anderson, 2011a, b g, h Yasuda et al., 2004 i
	Independent behavioral and neural adaptation	Bellebaum et al., 2010a g Eppinger et al., 2008, 2009 g Groen et al., 2007 g Hämmerer et al., 2010 g Nieuwenhuis et al., 2002 g Walsh & Anderson, 2011a g, h
The system that produces the FRN is engaged by volitional actions	Instrumental responses > Passive viewing	Itagaki & Katayama, 2008 Marco-Pallarés et al., 2010 Martin & Potts, 2011 Yeung et al., 2004
	High responsibility > Low responsibility Empathy	Holroyd et al., 2009 Li et al., 2011, 2012 Fukushima et al., 2006 j Itagaki & Katayama, 2008 j, k Leng & Zhou, 2010 l Marco-Pallarés et al., 2010 j, k, l Yu & Zhou, 2006 k

^aSource localization results revealed an additional generator in the anterior cingulate

^bHigh probability losses < low probability losses

^cHigh probability wins > low probability wins

^dData on constituent win and loss waveforms not included

^eManipulations of reward probability that failed to influence FRN amplitude

^fManipulations of reward magnitude that failed to influence FRN amplitude

^gBlock-wise analysis

^hModel-based analysis

ⁱParametric analysis

^jObserving adversary’s outcomes

^kObserving partner’s outcomes

^lObserving neutral outcomes