Table 2.
Association of Daily Coffee Consumption with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality among 229,119 Men.*
| Cause of Death | All Participants | No Coffee (N = 21,080) | <1 Cup (N = 34,710) | 1 Cup (N = 33,961) | 2 or 3 Cups (N = 97,144) | 4 or 5 Cups (N= 32,084) | ≥6 Cups (N= 10,139) | P Value for Trend |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All causes | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 33,731 | 2766 (13.1) | 4931 (14.2) | 5049 (14.9) | 14,115 (14.5) | 4966 (15.5) | 1904 (18.8) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.98–1.07) | 0.99 (0.94–1.03) | 1.03 (0.99–1.07) | 1.21 (1.15–1.27) | 1.60 (1.51–1.69) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.95–1.04) | 0.94 (0.90–0.99) | 0.90 (0.86–0.93) | 0.88 (0.84–0.93) | 0.90 (0.85–0.96) | <0.001 | |
| Cancer | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 13,402 | 946 (4.5) | 1729 (5.0) | 1824 (5.4) | 5804 (6.0) | 2219 (6.9) | 880 (8.7) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.06 (0.98–1.14) | 1.06 (0.98–1.15) | 1.25 (1.17–1.34) | 1.57 (1.46–1.70) | 2.13 (1.95–2.34) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.93–1.09) | 0.96 (0.89–1.04) | 1.00 (0.93–1.07) | 1.04 (0.96–1.12) | 1.08 (0.98–1.19) | 0.02 | |
| Heart disease | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 8,127 | 712 (3.4) | 1193 (3.4) | 1243 (3.7) | 3353 (3.5) | 1184 (3.7) | 442 (4.4) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.87–1.05) | 0.94 (0.86–1.03) | 0.95 (0.87–1.03) | 1.12 (1.02–1.23) | 1.44 (1.28–1.62) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.85–1.02) | 0.92 (0.84–1.01) | 0.86 (0.79–0.94) | 0.87 (0.79–0.96) | 0.88 (0.78–1.00) | 0.03 | |
| Respiratory disease | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 2,512 | 169 (0.8) | 351 (1.0) | 352 (1.0) | 1046 (1.1) | 409 (1.3) | 185 (1.8) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.17 (0.97–1.40) | 1.07 (0.89–1.28) | 1.21 (1.03–1.43) | 1.64 (1.37–1.96) | 2.63 (2.13–3.24) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.05 (0.87–1.27) | 0.93 (0.77–1.11) | 0.83 (0.70–0.98) | 0.83 (0.69–1.00) | 0.81 (0.65–1.00) | 0.004 | |
| Stroke | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 1,327 | 125 (0.6) | 221 (0.6) | 222 (0.7) | 555 (0.6) | 141 (0.4) | 63 (0.6) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.80–1.24) | 0.91 (0.73–1.14) | 0.87 (0.72–1.06) | 0.76 (0.60–0.97) | 1.21 (0.89–1.64) | 0.57 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 0.92 (0.73–1.15) | 0.84 (0.68–1.02) | 0.65 (0.51–0.84) | 0.83 (0.61–1.14) | 0.003 | |
| Injuries and accidents | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 1,211 | 113 (0.5) | 186 (0.5) | 202 (0.6) | 492 (0.5) | 168 (0.5) | 50 (0.5) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.76–1.21) | 1.01 (0.80–1.27) | 0.90 (0.73–1.10) | 1.00 (0.78–1.26) | 1.00 (0.72–1.40) | 0.93 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.77–1.24) | 1.02 (0.80–1.29) | 0.88 (0.71–1.09) | 0.87 (0.68–1.12) | 0.72 (0.51–1.02) | 0.02 | |
| Diabetes | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 850 | 87 (0.4) | 165 (0.5) | 154 (0.5) | 310 (0.3) | 107 (0.3) | 27 (0.3) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.10 (0.85–1.42) | 0.98 (0.75–1.27) | 0.73 (0.57–0.92) | 0.83 (0.62–1.10) | 0.71 (0.46–1.10) | 0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI)‡ | 1.00 | 1.07 (0.82–1.39) | 1.00 (0.76–1.31) | 0.75 (0.59–0.96) | 0.80 (0.60–1.08) | 0.60 (0.39–0.94) | <0.001 | |
| Infections | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 685 | 68 (0.3) | 112 (0.3) | 124 (0.4) | 276 (0.3) | 80 (0.2) | 25 (0.2) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.70–1.28) | 0.99 (0.74–1.34) | 0.82 (0.63–1.07) | 0.79 (0.57–1.09) | 0.85 (0.54–1.35) | 0.08 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.70–1.29) | 1.03 (0.76–1.40) | 0.83 (0.63–1.10) | 0.70 (0.50–0.98) | 0.59 (0.37–0.95) | 0.001 | |
| Other causes | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 5,617 | 546 (2.6) | 974 (2.8) | 928 (2.7) | 2279 (2.3) | 658 (2.1) | 232 (2.3) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.92–1.13) | 0.91 (0.81–1.01) | 0.84 (0.76–0.92) | 0.81 (0.73–0.91) | 1.00 (0.86–1.16) | 0.002 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.92–1.13) | 0.92 (0.82–1.02) | 0.81 (0.74–0.89) | 0.71 (0.63–0.80) | 0.72 (0.61–0.84) | <0.001 | |
CI denotes confidence interval. The numbers of deaths are for participants who died during follow-up. Multivariate analyses were adjusted for the following factors at baseline: age; body-mass index; race or ethnic group; level of education; alcohol consumption; the number of cigarettes smoked per day, use or nonuse of pipes or cigars, and time of smoking cessation (<1 year, 1 to <5 years, 5 to <10 years, or ≥10 years before baseline); health status; diabetes (yes vs. no); marital status; physical activity; total energy intake; consumption of fruits, vegetables, red meat, white meat, and saturated fat; and use or nonuse of vitamin supplements. In addition, risk estimates for death from cancer were adjusted for history of cancer (other than nonmelanoma skin cancer) in a first-degree relative (yes vs. no).