Table 3.
Association of Daily Coffee Consumption with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality among 173,141 Women.*
| Cause of Death | All Participants | No Coffee (N =20,865) | <1 Cup (N = 30,085) | 1 Cup (N = 31,355) | 2 or 3 Cups (N = 68,250) | 4 or 5 Cups (N = 17,434) | ≥6 Cups (N = 5152) | P Value for Trend |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All causes | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 18,784 | 2161 (10.4) | 3221 (10.7) | 3388 (10.8) | 7140 (10.5) | 2099 (12.0) | 775 (15.0) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.94–1.05) | 0.93 (0.88–0.98) | 0.93 (0.89–0.98) | 1.13 (1.07–1.20) | 1.51 (1.39–1.64) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.96–1.07) | 0.95 (0.90–1.01) | 0.87 (0.83–0.92) | 0.84 (0.79–0.90) | 0.85 (0.78–0.93) | <0.001 | |
| Cancer | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 7,750 | 783 (3.8) | 1153 (3.8) | 1313 (4.2) | 3110 (4.6) | 1016 (5.8) | 375 (7.3) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.90–1.08) | 1.02 (0.93–1.11) | 1.14 (1.05–1.23) | 1.52 (1.38–1.67) | 2.00 (1.77–2.27) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.90–1.08) | 1.01 (0.92–1.10) | 0.98 (0.90–1.06) | 1.01 (0.92–1.12) | 1.03 (0.90–1.16) | 0.66 | |
| Heart disease | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 3,701 | 461 (2.2) | 673 (2.2) | 683 (2.2) | 1379 (2.0) | 378 (2.2) | 127 (2.5) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.86–1.08) | 0.86 (0.76–0.96) | 0.83 (0.75–0.93) | 0.95 (0.83–1.09) | 1.16 (0.95–1.41) | 0.67 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.00 (0.89–1.13) | 0.91 (0.81–1.03) | 0.85 (0.76–0.95) | 0.78 (0.68–0.90) | 0.72 (0.59–0.88) | <0.001 | |
| Respiratory disease | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 1,791 | 187 (0.9) | 315 (1.0) | 279 (0.9) | 698 (1.0) | 208 (1.2) | 104 (2.0) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.92–1.33) | 0.85 (0.71–1.03) | 1.03 (0.88–1.22) | 1.29 (1.06–1.57) | 2.35 (1.85–2.99) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.09 (0.91–1.31) | 0.84 (0.69–1.01) | 0.79 (0.67–0.93) | 0.65 (0.53–0.79) | 0.77 (0.61–0.99) | <0.001 | |
| Stroke | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 966 | 115 (0.6) | 191 (0.6) | 168 (0.5) | 369 (0.5) | 91 (0.5) | 32 (0.6) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.09 (0.87–1.38) | 0.84 (0.66–1.06) | 0.89 (0.72–1.10) | 0.92 (0.70–1.21) | 1.18 (0.79–1.74) | 0.82 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.15 (0.91–1.45) | 0.89 (0.70–1.13) | 0.93 (0.75–1.15) | 0.82 (0.62–1.09) | 0.84 (0.56–1.25) | 0.05 | |
| Injuries and accidents | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 462 | 57 (0.3) | 91 (0.3) | 114 (0.4) | 153 (0.2) | 36 (0.2) | 11 (0.2) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.07 (0.77–1.49) | 1.22 (0.88–1.67) | 0.77 (0.57–1.05) | 0.74 (0.49–1.12) | 0.81 (0.42–1.54) | 0.004 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.80–1.55) | 1.27 (0.92–1.76) | 0.77 (0.56–1.06) | 0.64 (0.42–0.98) | 0.57 (0.29–1.10) | <0.001 | |
| Diabetes | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 446 | 71 (0.3) | 95 (0.3) | 93 (0.3) | 140 (0.2) | 38 (0.2) | 9 (0.2) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.66–1.22) | 0.79 (0.58–1.08) | 0.56 (0.42–0.75) | 0.63 (0.42–0.93) | 0.53 (0.27–1.07) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.00 (0.73–1.36) | 0.91 (0.67–1.25) | 0.77 (0.57–1.03) | 0.82 (0.54–1.23) | 0.57 (0.28–1.16) | 0.03 | |
| Infections | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 448 | 65 (0.3) | 77 (0.3) | 96 (0.3) | 152 (0.2) | 37 (0.2) | 21 (0.4) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.79 (0.57–1.10) | 0.88 (0.64–1.20) | 0.66 (0.50–0.89) | 0.66 (0.44–0.99) | 1.36 (0.83–2.22) | 0.63 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.82 (0.59–1.15) | 0.93 (0.68–1.29) | 0.69 (0.51–0.94) | 0.60 (0.40–0.91) | 0.97 (0.58–1.61) | 0.13 | |
| Other causes | ||||||||
| No. of deaths (%) | 3,220 | 422 (2.0) | 626 (2.1) | 642 (2.0) | 1139 (1.7) | 295 (1.7) | 96 (1.9) | |
| Age-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.87–1.11) | 0.89 (0.79–1.01) | 0.76 (0.68–0.85) | 0.81 (0.70–0.94) | 0.96 (0.77–1.20) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (95% CI) | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.90–1.16) | 0.94 (0.83–1.07) | 0.79 (0.71–0.89) | 0.74 (0.64–0.87) | 0.72 (0.57–0.90) | <0.001 | |
CI denotes confidence interval. The numbers of deaths are for participants who died during follow-up. Multivariate analyses were adjusted for the following factors at baseline: age; body-mass index; race or ethnic group; level of education; alcohol consumption; the number of cigarettes smoked per day, use or nonuse of pipes or cigars, and time of smoking cessation (<1 year, 1 to <5 years, 5 to <10 years, or ≥10 years before baseline); health status; diabetes (yes vs. no); marital status; physical activity; total energy intake; consumption of fruits, vegetables, red meat, white meat, and saturated fat; use or nonuse of vitamin supplements; and use or nonuse of postmenopausal hormone therapy. In addition, risk estimates for death from cancer were adjusted for history of cancer (other than nonmelanoma skin cancer) in a first-degree relative (yes vs. no).