TABLE 3.
Relative hazard of lethal prostate cancer among 47,896 male health professionals by intake of choline, choline-containing compounds, and betaine
| Quintile of intake |
||||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | P-trend1 | |
| Choline | ||||||
| Events | 105 | 123 | 140 | 155 | 172 | |
| Model 1, HR (95% CI)2 | 1.0 | 1.12 (0.86, 1.46) | 1.16 (0.90, 1.50) | 1.24 (0.96, 1.59) | 1.36 (1.06, 1.74) | 0.009 |
| Model 2, HR (95% CI)3 | 1.0 | 1.12 (0.86, 1.46) | 1.17 (0.90, 1.51) | 1.25 (0.97, 1.60) | 1.38 (1.08, 1.77) | 0.006 |
| Model 3, HR (95% CI)4 | 1.0 | 1.24 (0.93, 1.65) | 1.38 (1.01, 1.87) | 1.55 (1.11, 2.16) | 1.70 (1.18, 2.45) | 0.005 |
| Fat-soluble choline-containing compounds | ||||||
| Phosphatidylcholine | ||||||
| Events | 118 | 135 | 134 | 140 | 168 | |
| Model 1, HR (95% CI)2 | 1.0 | 1.17 (0.91, 1.50) | 1.12 (0.87, 1.44) | 1.15 (0.89, 1.47) | 1.33 (1.05, 1.69) | 0.03 |
| Model 2, HR (95% CI)3 | 1.0 | 1.17 (0.91, 1.50) | 1.12 (0.87, 1.44) | 1.14 (0.89, 1.47) | 1.34 (1.05, 1.70) | 0.03 |
| Model 3, HR (95% CI)4 | 1.0 | 1.28 (0.97, 1.70) | 1.32 (0.95, 1.82) | 1.37 (0.96, 1.96) | 1.46 (1.00, 2.13) | 0.10 |
| Sphingomyelin | ||||||
| Events | 133 | 148 | 158 | 119 | 137 | |
| Model 1, HR (95% CI)2 | 1.0 | 1.16 (0.91, 1.47) | 1.25 (0.99, 1.58) | 0.95 (0.74, 1.22) | 1.19 (0.93, 1.52) | 0.53 |
| Model 2, HR (95% CI)3 | 1.0 | 1.15 (0.90, 1.46) | 1.24 (0.98, 1.57) | 0.95 (0.73, 1.22) | 1.20 (0.93, 1.53) | 0.53 |
| Model 3, HR (95% CI)4 | 1.0 | 1.23 (0.93, 1.62) | 1.35 (0.98, 1.87) | 1.03 (0.71, 1.51) | 1.28 (0.82, 2.00) | 0.57 |
| Water-soluble choline-containing compounds | ||||||
| Free choline | ||||||
| Events | 120 | 122 | 161 | 136 | 156 | |
| Model 1, HR (95% CI)2 | 1.0 | 0.81 (0.63, 1.05) | 1.06 (0.83, 1.35) | 0.87 (0.68, 1.12) | 1.08 (0.85, 1.37) | 0.32 |
| Model 2, HR (95% CI)3 | 1.0 | 0.82 (0.64, 1.06) | 1.08 (0.85, 1.38) | 0.89 (0.69, 1.15) | 1.13 (0.88, 1.44) | 0.17 |
| Model 3, HR (95% CI)4 | 1.0 | 0.91 (0.70, 1.19) | 1.29 (0.99, 1.69) | 1.14 (0.85, 1.53) | 1.49 (1.10, 2.01) | 0.003 |
| Glycerophosphocholine | ||||||
| Events | 96 | 124 | 164 | 141 | 170 | |
| Model 1, HR (95% CI)2 | 1.0 | 1.14 (0.87, 1.49) | 1.42 (1.10, 1.84) | 1.18 (0.91, 1.54) | 1.37 (1.06, 1.77) | 0.03 |
| Model 2, HR (95% CI)3 | 1.0 | 1.13 (0.86, 1.49) | 1.43 (1.10, 1.84) | 1.18 (0.91, 1.54) | 1.38 (1.07, 1.78) | 0.03 |
| Model 3, HR (95% CI)4 | 1.0 | 1.20 (0.90, 1.58) | 1.55 (1.16, 2.06) | 1.32 (0.96, 1.80) | 1.59 (1.12, 2.25) | 0.02 |
| Phosphocholine | ||||||
| Events | 95 | 128 | 168 | 146 | 158 | |
| Model 1, HR (95% CI)2 | 1.0 | 1.22 (0.93, 1.60) | 1.44 (1.11, 1.86) | 1.22 (0.94, 1.59) | 1.20 (0.93, 1.55) | 0.39 |
| Model 2, HR (95% CI)3 | 1.0 | 1.23 (0.94, 1.61) | 1.45 (1.12, 1.88) | 1.25 (0.96, 1.62) | 1.23 (0.95, 1.60) | 0.28 |
| Model 3, HR (95% CI)4 | 1.0 | 1.31 (0.98, 1.75) | 1.60 (1.18, 2.16) | 1.38 (0.99, 1.93) | 1.34 (0.92, 1.96) | 0.26 |
| Betaine | ||||||
| Events | 131 | 134 | 135 | 157 | 138 | |
| Model 1, HR (95% CI)2 | 1.0 | 1.02 (0.80, 1.31) | 1.02 (0.80, 1.31) | 1.16 (0.91, 1.46) | 0.99 (0.78, 1.27) | 0.85 |
| Model 2, HR (95% CI)3 | 1.0 | 1.02 (0.80, 1.31) | 1.03 (0.80, 1.31) | 1.17 (0.92, 1.48) | 1.01 (0.79, 1.29) | 0.73 |
| Model 3, HR (95% CI)4 | 1.0 | 1.07 (0.83, 1.37) | 1.08 (0.84, 1.39) | 1.22 (0.95, 1.57) | 1.02 (0.78, 1.33) | 0.78 |
Calculated by modeling the median of each quintile as a continuous term.
Cox proportional hazards regression model adjusted for age (mo, continuous), time period (2-y intervals), and energy (kcal/d, quintiles).
Cox proportional hazards regression model adjusted for the variables in model 1 plus BMI (in kg/m2; <25, 25–29.9, ≥30, or missing), smoking (never, former, current, or missing), and vigorous activity (metabolic equivalent task-hours/wk; quartiles).
Cox proportional hazards regression model adjusted for the variables in model 2 plus quintile intakes of calcium, cholesterol, zinc, coffee, saturated fat, lycopene, phosphorus, and protein.